High capacity alkaline cells

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a high capacity electrochemical cell including a cathode that can contain an oxide of copper as an active material, an anode, an electrolyte, and a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. The oxide can have surface area greater than 0.5 m 2 /g, and the cathode can include an additive that increases the discharge voltage of the cell. In some cases the additive has a lower voltage than the oxide alone. The additive can have a surface area within the range defined by a lower limit of 0.5 m 2 /g and an upper limit of 100 m 2 /g. The anode can include a quantity of mercury below 0.025%.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/493,695 filed Aug. 8, 2003, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/528,414 filed Dec. 10, 2003, and U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 60/577,292 filed Jun. 4, 2004, the disclosure of each of which ishereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in their entiretyherein.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not applicable.

BACKGROUND

Alkaline electrochemical cells are typically configured as elongatedcylindrical cells (e.g., AA-, AAA-, C- and D-size cells) or as flatcells (e.g., prismatic cells and button cells). Primary alkaline cellsinclude a negative electrode (anode), a positive electrode (cathode), anelectrolyte, a separator, a positive current collector and a negativecurrent collector. The cathode of a conventional primary alkalineelectrochemical cell comprises manganese dioxide (MnO₂) and a conductingcarbonaceous material, typically graphite, such as synthetic, natural,or expanded graphite or mixtures thereof as widely recognized in the artin a mixture wetted with an aqueous alkaline electrolyte such aspotassium hydroxide. In cylindrical cells, the cathode mixture iscompressed into annular rings and stacked in the battery can or themixture may be extruded directly into the can, which serves as thepositive current collector.

The anode of a primary alkaline cell generally comprises zinc or zincalloy particles of various dimensions and shapes disposed in an alkalineelectrolyte, such as potassium hydroxide, along with gelling agents suchas carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and other additives such as surfactants.A negative current collector, usually a brass pin or nail, is placed inelectrical contact with the gelled anode. A separator placed between theelectrodes enables ions, but not electrons, to transfer between thecathode and anode while preventing the materials from directlycontacting each other and creating an electrical short circuit.Conventionally, the separator is a porous, non-woven, fibrous materialwetted with electrolyte. The separator is typically disposed radiallyinwardly of the cathode. Other aspects of a conventional alkaline cellare well known.

With the successful commercialization of these primary cells in themarketplace, new approaches to designing cells with long service life,acceptable shelf life, and voltage characteristics that operate commonportable devices continue to be developed.

However, the low density of the manganese dioxide material and itsconsumption of water during the discharge reaction of conventional zincmanganese dioxide alkaline electrochemical cells (requiring the designerto provide the necessary water) limits the amount of space available forthe zinc anode (which determines the service life), thereby leading torelatively low volumetric energy density. A recognized alternativecathode material is copper oxide, which has a high material density,does not consume water in the 2 electron discharge reaction, has a flatdischarge curve, high volumetric energy density, and little volumeexpansion upon discharge. Although it appears to be an excellentcandidate for a long service life battery, the operating voltage ofconventional batteries having a zinc anode and a copper oxide cathode isunfortunately no more than approximately 1.05V, too low to operatemodern day electronic devices at reasonable current drains. At anysubstantial device current drain, it can fall significantly below 1V,rendering the device largely inoperable.

The use of sulfur compounds to enhance the operating voltage of abattery having a CuO cathode is known. However, it is recognized in theart that soluble sulfur species produced in the presence of alkalineelectrolyte are detrimental to both anode performance and shelf life.The commercial application is therefore limited.

Additionally, recent approaches disclose using expanded graphite and/orgraphitic nano-fibers with CuO to produce a cell having long servicelife. However the operating voltage in such systems is typically around0.7V. Notably many of the prior approaches fail to mention solublecopper species that can be detrimental to the anode, provide no meansfor mitigating the problem, and fail to recognize the significance ofsurface area of CuO particles or of active sites on the particles on thecell discharge voltage and performance. Therefore, the disclosedtechnology does not produce a viable battery with reasonable shelf life.

SUMMARY

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, anelectrochemical cell is provided having a cathode including an oxide ofcopper having a surface area greater than 0.5 m²/g.

In accordance with another aspect, an electrochemical cell is providedhaving an anode, a cathode containing an oxide of copper, the oxidehaving a surface area >0.5 m²/g, and an additive to the oxide that has alower discharge voltage than the oxide, wherein the combined oxide andadditive produce a higher discharge voltage than either the oxide or theadditive alone. A separator is disposed between the anode and cathode.

In accordance with yet another aspect, an electrochemical cell isprovided having an anode, a cathode containing an oxide of copper, andan additive to the oxide. The additive has a surface area within therange defined by a lower limit of >0.5 m²/g and an upper limit of 100m²/g. The additive has a lower discharge voltage than the oxide, whereinthe combined oxide and additive produce a higher discharge voltage thaneither the oxide or the additive alone. A separator is disposed betweenthe anode and cathode.

In accordance with still another aspect, an electrochemical cell isprovided having an anode, a cathode including a component that generatesan anode-fouling sulfur species, and an electrolyte. An additive isprovided that interacts with at least a portion of the sulfur species toreduce anode-fouling by the species.

In accordance with one version of the present invention, anelectrochemical cell is provided including an anode, and a cathodecontaining an oxide of copper and an additive to the oxide. The cathodehas a density between about 3.5 g/cc and 4.5 g/cc. A separator isdisposed between the anode and the cathode.

In accordance with another version, an electrochemical cell is providedincluding an anode, a cathode containing an oxide of copper, and aseparator disposed between the anode and the cathode. An electrolytefacilitates ionic transport through the separator between the cathodeand anode. The cell achieves an anode capacity/cell volume ratio >0.5Ah/cc.

In accordance with still another version, an electrochemical cell isprovided including an anode having a quantity of mercury below 0.025%,and a cathode containing an oxide of copper. A separator is disposedbetween the anode and the cathode.

In accordance with yet another version, a method is provided forselecting a combination of at least two materials to be included into acathode of an electrochemical cell. The method includes A) identifying acathode active material and an additive each having a respective opencircuit voltage, (B) determining an open circuit voltage for acombination of the cathode active material and the additive, and (C)selecting the combination when the open circuit voltage of thecombination is greater than the open circuit voltage of the cathodeactive material or the additive alone.

In accordance with another facet of the invention, a method is providedfor selecting a combination of at least two materials to be included ina cathode of an electrochemical cell. The method includes A) identifyinga cathode active material and an additive, each having a respectiveGibbs' Free Energy of reduction reaction, B) determining the change inGibbs' Free Energy for the reduction reaction of a combination of thecathode active material and the additive, and (C) selecting thecombination when the change in Gibbs' Free Energy of the reductionreaction of the combination is greater than the Gibbs' Free Energychange for the reduction reaction of the cathode active material or theadditive alone.

Other aspects and advantages will become apparent, and a fullerappreciation of specific adaptations, compositional variations, andphysical attributes will be gained upon an examination of the followingdetailed description of the various embodiments, taken in conjunctionwith the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a sectional side elevation view of a cylindricalelectrochemical cell;

FIG. 2 shows a graph representing the physical/mechanical mixingbehavior of EMD/CuO and CuO alone vs. Zinc in 357 Button cells underconditions using jet-milled CuO, 34-2 electrolyte, and a 5 mA discharge;

FIG. 3 shows a graph representing the effect of increasing proportionsof copper in chemically synthesized Cu/Mn mixed oxides in CathodeMaterial vs. Pure CuO under conditions using 5 mA continuous discharge,28-2 electrolyte, in a flooded half-cell;

FIG. 4 shows a graph representing the performance of chemicallysynthesized CuO+MnO₂ cathodes under conditions using 5 mA discharge in aflooded half-cell;

FIG. 5 shows a graph representing the smoothening behavior of EMD/CuOtransition by a combination of mechanical mixing and chemicalsynthesis/precipitation of CuO on to Commercial MnO2 (EMD) under 5 mAdischarge conditions;

FIG. 6 is a graph plotting the discharge behavior of pure CuO andvarious CuO/CuS mixtures in a half cell vs. a Hg/HgO referenceelectrode.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the effect of using higher surface areaCuO on its discharge voltage;

FIG. 8 is a graph illustrating the effect of CuS particle size on therate capability of a jet-milled CuO/CuS cathode in a flooded half-cellwhere the current is progressively stepped between 5 mA and 35 mA.

FIG. 9 shows a graph representing the discharge behavior of a layeredcathode containing (EMD) MnO₂₊CuO under conditions using jet-milled CuO,66% BIP Sieved anode, with 34-2 electrolyte and 25-0 pre-wetelectrolyte, and a 5 mA discharge;

FIG. 10 illustrates three examples of electrode configurations for flatcathodes of button cells;

FIG. 11 illustrates two examples of cylindrical electrodeconfigurations;

FIG. 12 is a graph plotting the particle size distribution of sievedzinc alloy anode particles;

FIG. 13 is a graph plotting cell performance for electrochemical cellscontaining CuO, wherein a first cell contains sieved zinc at a lowerelectrolyte concentration, and a second cell contains conventionallydistributed zinc and a higher electrolyte concentration;

FIG. 14 is a graph plotting the solubility of CuO in KOH electrolyte asa function of electrolyte concentration and storage time;

FIG. 15 is a graph plotting the wettability of CuO compared to EMD as afunction of electrolyte concentration;

FIG. 16 is a graph plotting KOH and water transport in 4 hours throughvarious separator materials;

FIG. 17 is an illustration of a fully welded side seam of PVA film usingan ultrasonic welding technique;

FIG. 18 illustrates a seam sealed cylindrical separator member having asealed end using an impulse heat-sealing apparatus;

FIG. 19 illustrates the bottom of a seam sealed and bottom sealed PVAseparator tube formed into the shape of the bottom of a cell can intowhich it will be inserted;

FIG. 20 is a graph plotting the open circuit voltage for a plurality ofcells having CuO cathodes and varying separators;

FIG. 21 is a graph plotting the discharge profile of cells havingCuO/CuS cathodes and various separators and combinations;

FIG. 22 is a graph plotting the discharge profile of a pair of cellshaving CuO/CuS cathodes and varying separators;

FIG. 23 is a graph plotting the discharge profile of a pair of cellshaving CuO/CuS cathodes to illustrate the effect of including PVA in thecathode;

FIG. 24 is a graph plotting the discharge profile of a pair of cellshaving CuO/CuS cathodes and varying separators;

FIG. 25 is a graph plotting the discharge profile of a pair of cellshaving CuO/CuS cathodes and varying separators;

FIG. 26 is a graph comparing initial water uptake of various separatormaterials; and

FIG. 27 is a graph illustrating the melting curves, and correspondingmelting points, of various separator materials.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates to an alkaline electrochemical cell and toits component parts. A representative conventional cylindrical cell isillustrated in FIG. 1, though a skilled artisan will appreciate that thepresent invention is not limited to the cell illustrated, but ratherapplies to other cylindrical cell configurations and othernon-cylindrical cells, such as flat cells (prismatic cells and buttoncells). Referring initially to FIG. 1, an axially extending cylindricalcell 18 has a positive terminal 21, a negative terminal 23, and apositive current collector in the form of an unplated cylindrical steelcontainer 20. Container 20 is initially closed at its positive end 25proximal the positive terminal 21 and open at its end proximal thenegative terminal 23 such that the negative end of container is crimpedto close the cell 18 as is understood generally by a skilled artisan.

At least one or more cylindrical annular cathode rings 24, formed suchthat their outside diameters at their outer peripheral sidewalls areslightly greater than the inside diameter of the positive currentcollector 20, are forced into the positive current collector. A coating22, desirably carbon, can be applied to the radially inner surface ofcontainer 20 to enhance the electrical contact between the cathode rings24 and the container. Installation of the cathode rings 24 forms apressure contact with coating 22. Cathode 24 further presents an innersurface 27 that define a centrally shaped void 28 in a cylindrical cellwithin which anode 26 is disposed.

A separator 32 is disposed between the anode 26 and cathode 24. Anode26, which is placed inside of the cathode rings 24, is generallycylindrically shaped, and has an outer peripheral surface which engagesthe inner surfaces of a separator 32, and comprises gelled zinc inaccordance with at least one aspect of the present invention. Theseparator is disposed adjacent inner wall 27 between the cathode 24 andanode 26. An alkaline aqueous electrolyte typically comprising potassiumhydroxide and water at least partially wets anode 26, cathode rings 24,and separator 32.

A bead 30 is rolled into the container near the negative end 41 tosupport a sealing disk 34. The sealing disk 34, having a negativecurrent collector 36 extending there-through, is placed into the openend of the container 20 and in contact with the bead 30. The negativeopen end 41 of the container 20 is crimped over the sealing disk 34 thuscompressing it between the crimp and the bead 30 to close and seal thecell. An insulation washer 38 with a central aperture is placed over thecrimped end of the cell such that the end of the negative currentcollector 36 protrudes through the aperture. A contact spring 40 isaffixed to the end of the negative current collector 36. Negativeterminal cap 42 and positive terminal cap 44 are placed into contactwith the contact spring 40 and the positive current collector 20,respectively, and an insulating tube 46 and steel shell 48 can be placedaround the cell 18 and crimped on their ends to hold the terminal capsin place. It should be appreciated that steel shell 48 and insulatingtube 46 could be eliminated to increase the internal volume for the cellthat may be occupied by active ingredients. Such an arrangement isdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,419 assigned to Rayovac Corporation,the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein forthe purposes of background information.

In a broad embodiment, a cell of the invention includes a cathode thatcomprises an oxide of copper as a cathode active material. A suitableoxide that comprises copper is copper (II) oxide or a mixed oxidecompound that comprises copper and at least one other metal, where theother metal(s) has a reducible oxidation state. Such a cathode cancomprise a physical mixture of the two, or a chemically synthesizedcomplex oxide of the two or more elements. The invention can also relateto other components of the cathode, and of the anode, the separator, andthe electrolyte, which components can be combined as desired to producea cell having improved discharge and service life characteristics inaccordance with the invention. Other aspects of the cell of theinvention not specifically described herein can be conventional.

The invention also relates to methods for making and using a cathode, ananode, electrolyte, separator/barrier, separator/barrier seal, andalkaline electrochemical cell.

Cathode Materials and Designs

Focusing first on the cathode, one aspect of the present inventionrecognizes that copper oxide is known as a high capacity (e.g., about337 mA/g for 1 electron reduction and 674 mAh/g for a 2-electronreduction) cathode material with the potential to significantly increaseservice life compared to present day commercially available alkalinecells. However, several issues typically minimize the likelihood thatone of skill would include copper oxide as cathode material forconventional Zn gelled anode alkaline cells. One issue arises as aresult of the operating voltage of the copper oxide being too low forapplications requiring open circuit voltages above 1.1V or closedcircuit voltage above 1.0V at reasonable current drains. Variousversions of the present invention enable the operating voltage increaseof a copper oxide containing cell.

Another issue is the solubility of copper from the copper-containingcathode in alkaline electrolytes. In particular, the soluble speciesfrom these materials can be detrimental to the storage and discharge ofthe gelled zinc anode of alkaline cells if allowed to migrate past theseparator to the anode. Various aspects of the present inventiondisclose ways to mitigate and/or manage this problem and providebatteries with improved service life and shelf life. Similar issuesarise with silver, nickel, iodate, and/or sulfur-containing cathodematerials.

Various versions of the present invention provide physical and chemicalapproaches to increasing the operating discharge voltage of a cell thatcomprises an oxide of a metal, and in particular an oxide of copper, inthe cathode to a level greater than that of CuO alone. Without intendingto be limited to a theory of the invention, it is believed thatthermodynamic and kinetic considerations support the disclosed approach.The operating voltage of the cathode can be increased by supplementingthe CuO with at least one additional cathode active material that has anoperating voltage higher than CuO, for example EMD, CMD, NiO, NiOOH,Cu(OH)₂, Cobalt Oxide, PbO₂, AgO, Ag₂O, AgCuO₂, Cu₂Mn₂O₄, Cu₂Ag₂O₄, andCu₂Ag₂O₃. The combination of CuO and the additive(s) therefore also hasan operating voltage higher than CuO.

Alternatively, the discharge voltage of the cathode can be increased bysupplementing the CuO with at least one additive having a dischargevoltage that is lower than the discharge voltage of CuO. When a suitableadditive is combined with CuO, however, the combination has a higherdischarge voltage than either the additive or the CuO alone. The opencircuit and discharge voltages of the CuO, the additive, and thecombination of the CuO and the additive can, of course, be determinedexperimentally by one skilled in the art. Alternatively, the presentinventors recognize that a suitable additive can be selected byscreening multiple candidate materials without experimentation by firstestimating the change in Gibbs' Free Energy of a combination versuszinc, and hence the open circuit voltage of the reduction reactionutilizing the Gibbs Free Energy equation. In particular, a suitableadditive can be identified when the change in Gibbs Free Energy of thereduction reaction of the combination versus zinc is higher with respectto the change in Gibbs Free Energy of the reduction reaction of eitherindividual component versus zinc. Of course, alternatives to a zincanode could be substituted for batteries having a different anode, aswould be appreciated by one having ordinary skill in the art. The opencircuit voltage being a thermodynamic characteristic, a high value willnot always produce a high operating voltage due to kineticconsiderations, however a high open circuit voltage is indicative ofpossible suitable additive candidates. Once a candidate material isselected based on calculating the change in Gibbs' Free Energy, oneskilled in the art would recognize that simple experimentation may beperformed to establish the discharge voltage of its combination. Thisaspect is discussed below with reference to a CuO/CuS mixture.

One aspect of the present invention provides a cathode having an activematerial whose discharge voltage is higher than CuO while providing cellservice life at least 60% as long as a CuO electrode. Suitably, thedischarge voltage of the battery incorporating a cathode additive havingeither 1) a higher discharge voltage than the first cathode activematerial or 2) a lower discharge voltage than the first cathode activematerial but, when combined with the first cathode active material,produces a combination having a discharge voltage higher than the firstcathode active material, produces a discharge voltage greater than 1.05V for at least an initial 5% of the cell discharge period (meaning thefirst 5% of a total length of time that the cell is dischargedcontinuously until the operating voltage is reduced to a level of 0.8V)at a current density of 5 mA/g. Accordingly, a cathode constructed inaccordance with aspects of the present invention achieves a higherdischarge voltage than prior art cells including copper oxide cathodeactive materials, whose discharge voltages were not sufficiently high tooperate modern devices.

One approach is to provide a cathode active material that comprises aphysical mixture of an oxide of copper with another metal oxide. Asecond approach includes compounding or complexing a plurality ofcomponents to synthesize new cathode active materials that comprisecopper and at least one other metal or non-metal. A third generalapproach is to provide a cathode having CuO mixed or combined in variousways with at least one additional material such that the Gibbs FreeEnergy of the overall reaction with zinc is increased as a result ofdisplacement reactions between (for example) CuO and the additionalmaterial like copper sulfide (CuS). It is further recognized thatvarious combinations of the described general approaches may be used toprovide the desired result.

In the first approach, chemical components having the desirable physicalcharacteristics (e.g., particle size, surface area, etc.) for use in acathode can be physically mixed to homogeneity using standard processingmethods known to those having ordinary skill in the art. In use, such aphysical cathode mixture transitions from the discharge behavior of thehigher oxide to that of the oxide of copper. Supplementary metal oxideadditives to the oxide of copper can be chosen from the group ofgenerally known positive electrode materials that independently providehigher operating voltages vs. zinc in the initial portion of dischargethan does the oxide of copper. Suitable examples of positive electrodematerials can include, but are not limited to, MnO₂ (EMD or CMD), NiO,NiOOH, Cu(OH)₂, Cobalt Oxide, PbO₂, AgO, Ag₂O, Ag₂Cu₂O₃, CuAgO₂, CuMnO₂,and suitable combinations thereof.

Mn is used as an example herein since it is currently the most widelyused cathode active material. Mn is therefore used in combination withCu to increase the initial portion of the discharge curve of CuO whilemaintaining the longer service life provided by CuO. Similar methods canbe utilized using other elements such as Ni, Co, Pb, Ag, etc. to enhancethe voltage in the initial portion of the discharge curve as desired.Generally, the higher the oxidation state of an active material, thehigher the discharge voltage.

By way of example, a cathode having an appropriate quantity of EMD MnO₂(say, 5-60%), which has an initially high operating voltage but a rathersloping discharge curve, can be mixed with CuO to yield a mixed cathodethat exhibits the higher initial operating voltage of the MnO2 with anextended service life more characteristic of the CuO electrode at ˜1V.The MnO₂ discharges first, followed by the CuO, with a relatively sharptransition between them. It is envisioned that by adding MnO₂ to about20% one can obtain almost the same discharge capacity as CuO (andsignificantly higher than MnO₂ by itself), with the advantage of highoperating voltage of the manganese oxide for the first 6 hours of thedischarge as shown in FIG. 2 which depicts an increase in operatingvoltage when EMD is physically mixed in various ratios with CuO. Forreference, the EMD behavior is also shown, with about 25 hrs deliveredto 0.8V. This example demonstrates the potential of a simple, mixedcathode material that can deliver at least 50% higher capacity than EMDitself. The two components can be provided at a wide range of ratios, tomeet the desired discharge characteristics. Compounds with otherelements like Ni, Co, Ag, Pb, etc . . . can similarly be used.

The discharge mechanisms of MnO₂ and CuO are very different. In astandard Zn/MnO₂ cell, the MnO₂ has a density of 4.5 g/cc, consumes 1mole of water per mole MnO₂ incorporating protons into its structure toyield MnOOH (a poor electronic conductor and a material of lowerdensity). The need for water for the cathode reaction limits the amountof active material (e.g. zinc) that can be used in the cell, resultingin relatively low volumetric energy density. The cathode also has asloping discharge curve with little capacity below 1 V. On the otherhand, copper oxide (CuO), which has a density of approximately 6.3 g/cc,consumes only half a mole of water per mole of CuO discharged for thefirst electron (with little volume expansion), has a very flat dischargecurve, and provides high volumetric energy density in a cell.

In a cathode containing a physical mixture of the two, it appears thatperformance of the CuO portion of the cathode deteriorates as MnO₂content increases, presumably for the following reasons. In such acathode, the CuO discharge reaction takes over after the MnO₂ dischargesits first electron. However, insufficient electrolyte is available tothe CuO for efficient reaction, creating mass transfer polarization. TheMnO₂ volume expansion during discharge can separate the CuO particlesfrom themselves and from the conducting material (e.g., synthetic orexpanded graphite ) that is usually provided in the cathode. Thisincreases the ohmic resistance in the cathode, resulting in a furtherloss in voltage. Additionally, the anode is already partially dischargedwhen the CuO discharge commences, contributing anode polarization to thecell voltage. The presumed net effect of these processes is that the CuOmaterial operates at a lower voltage than it otherwise would, resultingin a lower than desirable battery voltage as shown in FIG. 2.

Certain aspects of this invention (i.e., CuO≧40% by weight of cathodeactive material) also seek to mitigate the detrimental effects ofdissimilar discharge behaviors by optionally providing in the cell aplurality of cathode active materials in separate layers or pellets (orin separate layers that can comprise mixtures of oxides), such that theoperating voltage of a cell having a zinc anode and a cathode of theinvention is higher than that of a Zn/CuO cell.

In the second general approach, a higher operating voltage than pureCuO, and a smoother and more continuous transition than in the precedingmethod, can be obtained by solution phase chemical compounding orsynthesis using soluble cationic elements to produce mixed oxidecompounds or complexes existing in one or more phases. Suitable elementscan include, but are not limited to, Mn, Ni, Co, Fe, Sn, V, Mo, Pb, orAg, or combinations thereof. Such mixed oxide compounds may also beproduced via solid state reactions at appropriate temperatures, as oneskilled in the art will readily appreciate.

In accordance with this aspect of the invention, the general formula ofa copper based mixed oxide material of this invention isM_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z) (where M is any suitable element, as noted, while1≦x≦5, 1≦y≦5 and 1≦z≦20). Compounds having AM_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z) as generalformula (where A can be, e.g., Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ca, Mg, Sr and Ba) canalso be designed for use as cathode active materials.

One example of a process for preparing a mixed oxide cathode activematerial involves chemically reducing a mixed solution of salts togetherwith a complexing agent and a reducing agent (e.g., sodiumtetra-borohydride (NaBH₄), sodium formate, formic acid, formaldehyde,fumaric acid or hydrazine) to produce a compound containing the metals.A complex compound of the form AM_(x)Cu_(y) can also be prepared uponaddition of a third metal salt as a precursor in this reduction step.The resulting product can be oxidized under acidic conditions with anoxidizing agent (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate,potassium persulfate or potassium chlorate) to form a copper based mixedoxide.

For instance, Cu/Mn compounds prepared in this manner were confirmed byX-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis to be a mixed copper manganese oxidecompound of a new phase. Although, no ASTM card corresponds to thisoxide, its diffraction pattern is similar to that of Cu₂Mn₃O₈. Othercompounds such as of Cu₂Mn₂O₅ alone or in combination with CuO are alsodetected when the pH of hydrogen peroxide is made more acidic during theoxidation process. Oxidation conditions substantially affect thecrystalline structure of the copper based mixed oxide.

It is also envisioned that oxidation of the Cu/Mn compounds can becarried out in, for example, an alkaline solution or a solution having aneutral pH. Organic or inorganic acid (or base) can be used to adjustthe pH of the oxidation solution. Also, the compounds can be first heattreated prior to chemical oxidation. Furthermore, copper mixed oxidecompounds can be heat-treated prior to being mixed with conductingmaterial to form cathode.

The compounds can also be prepared by known mechanical alloying methodsusing a high-energy ball mill or by direct high-temperature melting in afurnace. It is further envisioned that M_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z-) orAM_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z)-copper based mixed oxide materials can alternativelybe made by co-precipitating a mixture of metal salt solution followed byheating the precipitate under appropriate conditions.

FIG. 3 shows the behavior of such mixed oxide materials, as well as theeffect of increasing Cu content in the synthesis of the cathode materialin a flooded electrolyte half-cell. New cathode materials are usuallytested in flooded half-cell fixtures where complications from otherprocesses are eliminated in order to focus only on the cathode. In sucha fixture, there is an excess of electrolyte and the anode is a largesurface area inert electrode like Ni gauze. The voltages are recordedvs. a reference electrode which for an alkaline system comprises aHg/HgO reference as known to those skilled in the art. As seen in FIG.3, the presence of Mn increases the initial discharge voltage, and asthe proportion of Cu in the material increases, the discharge capacityalso increases, with minimal detrimental effect on the initial highvoltage. Thus, by tuning the composition, desired dischargecharacteristics, including high initial voltage and long service life,can be obtained.

Another process for preparing a mixed metal oxide comprises oxidizing asoluble first metal salt such as copper (I or II) salt (e.g., copperacetate) by potassium permanganate in alkali solution. The first metalis oxidized to a higher oxidation state while the Mn in the permanganateis reduced. FIG. 4 compares performance of a Cu/Mn cathode prepared inthis manner to a CuO cathode and demonstrates that a desired initialvoltage higher than CuO can be attained. FIG. 4 also shows that about90% of the discharge capacity of the CuO is maintained in the activecathode. It is envisioned that these properties can be tailored byadjusting the relative ratio of Cu and Mn in the synthesis.Additionally, the flat portion of the discharge curve shows about 30 mVhigher average voltage than CuO material obtained commercially. Thesurface activity and surface area of the active material play a role inperformance here as well. It is believed that the morphology and surfacearea of the deposited material are also favorable for higher voltagedischarge.

Another process can be used to synthesize a higher voltage cathodematerial containing copper. Specifically Cu in the +3 state issynthesized in a silver compound using AgNO₃ and Cu(NO₃)₂. 3H₂O, and themixed solution is oxidized using K₂S₂O₈ in the presence of KOH. Such anoxide in KOH would, however, generate anode-fouling copper and silverspecies. The present invention therefore also provides a separatorsystem that overcomes this difficulty and yields a viable battery havingan acceptable shelf life, as is described in more detail below.

In a related embodiment, a cathode active material can be obtained by acombination of physical admixing with chemical synthesis. Thiscombination provides copper oxide on the surface of the manganese oxideto facilitate smooth transitions between the phases and dischargeprofiles of the individual compounds. Using this combination, it ispossible to obtain the voltage profiles shown in FIG. 5. The oppositemay also be applicable, whereby MnO₂ or other material could be providedon the surface of the CuO.

In accordance with an embodiment of this method, CuO and Ag₂O areprecipitated from CuSO₄ and AgNO₃, respectively in alkali media in thepresence of EMD. The cathode material can contain for example, 64% CuO,35% EMD and approximately 1% Ag₂O added as a conductivity enhancer. TheAg₂O will discharge first, producing highly conducting metallic silverin the cathode. Synthetic, natural or expanded graphites as are wellknown in the art provide adequate electronic conductivity and integrityto the cathode. The resulting cathode, shown in FIG. 5, showssignificant increase in the initial voltage, while providing dischargecapacity significantly greater than the MnO_(2.) The flat portion of thedischarge is also approximately 45 mV higher on average, than thevoltage of CuO alone. The transition from MnO₂ behavior to CuO behavioris also smoother in FIG. 5 than is the transition in FIG. 2. It is anadvantage of the present invention that discharge capacity of the cellis higher than in conventional cells over a range of discharge rates.

In the third general approach, supplementary additives can also bechosen for combining, from elements or compounds that have a lowerdischarge voltage than CuO, but which, in combination with CuO, producea higher discharge voltage than either constituent alone. When thereaction kinetics are suitably rapid, the discharge voltage of thesecouples also follows the same trend as the open circuit voltage.Examples of such materials may include, but are not limited to,elemental sulfur, selenium, tellurium, sulfides, selenides, tellurides,and iodates such as CuS, Ag₂S, ZnS, B₂S₃,SnS, FeS, Fe₂S₃, CoS, NiS,CuSe, CuTe, CuAgS, CuAg₃S, and suitable compounds and mixtures thereof.For example, it is believed for the case of a CuO/CuS combination, thatthe discharge voltage is unexpectedly higher as a result of adisplacement reaction between CuO and CuS (i.e., CuS having a dischargevoltage lower than CuO). Thus, while pure CuS by itself has a lowerdischarge voltage versus zinc (0.7V vs. Zn), the combination of CuS withCuO discharges at a higher voltage than either material by itself. Shownbelow are theoretical open circuit voltages for relevant reactions tohelp illustrate the CuO/CuS system:

Copper Oxide Reduction Reaction: (Reaction 1)2CuO+2e+H₂O→Cu₂O+2OH⁻ ΔG=−50.2 K cal

-   -   Theoretical OCV: 1.089V vs. Zn

Copper Sulfide Reduction Reaction (Reaction 2)2CuS+2e+H₂O→Cu₂S+HS⁻+OH⁻ ΔG=−32.6 K cal

-   -   Theoretical OCV: 0.708 vs. Zn

Copper Oxide/Copper Sulfide Mixture Reduction Reaction: (Reaction 3)CuO+CuS+2e+H₂O→Cu₂S+2OH⁻ ΔG=−54.6 K cal

-   -   Theoretical OCV: 1.183 V vs. Zn

To determine the change in Free Energies and Open Circuit Voltagesabove, the anode reaction used was:Zn+2OH⁻→ZnO+H₂O+2e

The experimental OCV values obtained were found to reflect thetheoretical values quite well. It has also been determined that thereaction kinetics are sufficiently rapid, resulting in the dischargevoltage of a CuO/CuS combination being higher than the discharge voltageof CuO or CuS alone versus Zinc. The change in Gibbs' Free Energies werecalculated from the free energies of formation of reactants andproducts, available in the “The oxidation states of the elements andtheir potentials in aqueous solutions”, Second Edition, Wendell M.Latimer, Prentice Hall, Inc, 1952, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference to the extent that it discusses the freeenergies of formation of reactants and products of the type describedherein. The open circuit voltages were calculated utilizing the formulaΔG=-nFE, where Delta G refers to the free energy change of a reaction, nrefers to the number of electrons involved in the reaction, F is theFaraday constant (96500 coulombs/mole) and E is the voltage in V as oneskilled in the art would readily recognize.

It is believed that the ratio of CuO to CuS dictates the dischargevoltage profile. For example, an excess of CuS in a CuO/CuS mixture willcause the reaction to proceed in two steps, where Reaction 3 proceedsfirst at about 1.18V, until the CuS is consumed, followed by Reaction 1at approximately 1.09V vs. Zinc. Since the copper oxide/copper sulfidemixture reduction reaction consumes equi-molar amounts of CuO and CuS,use of a mixture containing a 1:1 molar ratio of CuO and CuS provides adischarge profile at approximately 1.1V for the entire capacity, withouta lower discharge plateau as is observed when CuO is in excess asdescribed above. A 1:1 molar ratio represents a 45/55 weight ratio ofCuO/CuS for the mixture. FIG. 6 shows the discharge behavior of pure CuOand cathode mixtures comprising various molar ratios of CuO/CuS in ahalf cell vs. Hg/HgO reference electrode. It is noteworthy that theoperating voltage is significantly higher than pure CuO alone. Thepresent invention further provides cathode materials having a flattervoltage profile than, for example, MnO₂, and more similar to that ofCuO.

Various versions of this invention encompass a molar ratio within therange of 0.5:1 and 1:1.5 CuO/CuS, and one-tenth increments of CuObetween 0.5:1 and 1.5: 1, with a suitable molar ratio of approximately1:1.

Table 1 shows the theoretical capacity to −0.9V vs. Hg/HgO referenceelectrode that can be obtained from cathodes containing various CuO/CuSmolar ratio blends. TABLE 1 Theoretical Capacity at 5 mA to −0.3 V vs.Hg/HgO Cathode Mix Ref CuS:CuO Molar Ratio mAh/gm   1:1 306 0.9:1 2920.8:1 275 0.6:1 235

For a cylindrical cell (AAA, AA, C, D) for which annular cylindricalcathodes are formed ex-situ or in-situ, it has been discovered that theunique characteristics of the CuS material can be leveraged to allowtablet densities hitherto not seen in commercial alkaline batteries. Thecathodes in present day commercial alkaline batteries have densities ofabout 3.2 g/cc of cathode volume. With appropriate choice (e.g. about97%) of CuO, CuS, conducting carbon (e.g., about 3% or KS4 and/orexpanded graphite) and processing conditions (e.g., using a standardhydraulic or pelletting press), cathode densities of about 3.5 g/cc upto about 4.5 g/cc of cathode volume can be achieved. A skilled artisanwill appreciate that variants of these concentrations can also producethe stated cathode densities. This allows significantly more activematerial to be packed into a cell, to provide batteries with longerservice life than previously known. AA cells with delivered capacitiesup to 4 Ah may be produced, which are significantly improved OVERpresent day commercial alkaline batteries having deliverable capacitiesof about 2.5-2.8 Ah.

The present inventors also recognize that jet-milling of commerciallyavailable CuO to reduce particle size and increase surface area resultsin a higher operating voltage. The surface area plays an important rolein the reaction kinetics and hence the operating voltage of the battery.The present invention recognizes that an applied current to a cathodecreates a stress that is distributed among the entire surface area ofthe cathode. Accordingly, cathodes having a greater surface area performbetter than those having smaller surface areas as illustrated in FIG. 7.

In addition to mechanical attrition and air-jet milling, the surfacearea of the CuO can also be increased by modifying the processconditions during synthesis of the CuO, particularly if using a solutionprocess. Jet milling of as-received commercial CuO (from Sigma/Aldrich,located in St. Louis, Mo.) is shown to more than double the BET surfacearea from ˜1.27 m²/g to ˜5.57 m²/g. Solution synthesized CuO can beobtained, where suface areas are significantly higher, thereby providingelectrodes with lower polarization. A commonly known method to determinesurface areas of powders is the BET method, which uses the principle ofgas adsorption of the surface of the particles to estimate the surfacearea. A commercially available Tristar 3000 Gas Adsorption Analyzer andSmart prep Degasser manufactured by Micromeretics Corp., located inNorcross, Ga. were used for the analysis. 1 gram samples were used,after degassing for 2 hours. The results are illustrated in Table 2.TABLE 2 Mean Particle Particle BET Size, micro Size Range Surface meter(um) Um Area, m²/g CuO & Source As Recd. from 9.6  1-25 1.3 Aldrich 99+%ACS grade, <5 micron Jet milled Aldrich 1.9 0.7-3.5 5.6 Jiangsu Taixing4.5 0.2-60  10.5 (China) Nano (NanoScale 22.3 1.0-60  39.6 Corp.) CuS &Source Alfa Aesar, 99.8% 24  0.1-100  1.2 (metals basis), - 200 meshpowder

Chemically synthesized agglomerates of a nano-CuO may also be used forthe cathode. Such materials can be obtained from NanoScale Materials,Inc. 1310 Research Park Drive, Manhattan, Kans. 66502 USA. In accordancewith one aspect of the present invention, the particle size is within arange whose lower end is between, and includes, 0.1 microns and 10microns, and whose upper end is between, and includes, 50 microns and150 microns. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention,the CuO has a surface area within a range whose lower end is between,and includes, 0.5 m²/g, 1 m²/g, and 5 m²/g, and whose upper end isbetween, and includes, 20 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, and 100 m²/g.

The particle size, particle size distribution (PSD) and Brunauer,Emmett, and Teller (BET) surface area of the CuS are believed to play animportant role in achieving the desired cathode packing density andintegrity, as well as discharge voltage characteristics. The relativePSD's of the CuO and CuS are also believed to be importantconsiderations in making blends, as would be appreciated by one of skillin the art.

FIG. 8 shows the effect of CuS particle size on the rate capability of ajet-milled CuO/CuS cathode in a flooded half-cell where the current isprogressively stepped between 5 mA and 35 mA. At 20 mA and highercurrents, the electrode comprising CuS of particle size smaller than 25micrometers shows a significantly lower polarization (higher voltage)than a cathode comprising CuS particles>25 micrometers in diameter.Since a smaller particle size contributes a higher surface area thanlarger particles of the same mass, this result indicates that a highersurface area CuS provides superior current carrying capability (ratecapability) in a cathode comprising CuO/CuS. One skilled in the artwould recognize that the physical characteristics of all the materialscomprising a cathode need to be optimized to achieve the desirablephysical robustness and discharge characteristics in a battery.Commercially available CuS typically has a BET surface area of fromabout 0.5 m²/g to about 1.2 m²/g. Increasing the surface area isbeneficial to the electrode structure and performance. It is believedthat increasing the surface areas to as high as high as 50 or 100 m²/gwill provide the desired benefits in an electrochemical cell The surfacearea can be increased by a number of conventional methods such as forexample, air-jet milling. One skilled in the art will also recognizethat surface area can also be increased by appropriate control of thesynthesis conditions during manufacture of the CuS material. It has beenfurther discovered that the plate-like structure of CuS allows thematerial to shear under appropriate processing conditions, therebyproviding increased surface area and smaller particle size as well asbetter blending and packing with the other components of the cathode.

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the particlesize of CuS is within a range whose lower end is between, and includes,0.1 microns and 10 microns, and whose upper end is between, andincludes, 50 microns and 150 microns. In accordance with another aspectof the present invention, the CuS has a surface area within a rangewhose lower end is between, and includes, 0.5 m²/g, 1 m²/g, and 5 m²/g,and whose upper end is between, and includes, 20 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, and 100 m²g.

One problem with sulfur or sulfide containing mixtures in the cathode isthe solubility of sulfur species in alkaline electrolytes (such as KOH)and their migration toward the zinc anode where they can foul andinterfere with the anode's reactions and lead to passivation,self-discharge or other undesirable situations that, depending on theconditions, depress the anode voltage. Hence it is desirable to block,tie-up or slowdown this process of species generation and migration inorder to produce a practical battery with reasonable shelf life. Variousaspects of this invention teach the use of special separator materialsas well as methods to practice the preparation and sealing of theseparator seams, in order to allow one to utilize the high operatingvoltage and still produce a battery with reasonable shelf life.

Various versions of the present invention recognize the good lubricatingproperties and high conductivity of CuS in practice. Use of CuS in amixture therefore allows the reduction or elimination of conductingcarbons in the cathode and provides an additional 5-7 wt. % room foractive material, thereby further increasing cell capacity. In a relatedaspect, the conductive and lubricating properties of CuS may be utilizedto replace the conductive carbon coating 22 currently used on theinternal can surfaces in alkaline batteries (See FIG. 1).

The initial voltage of this combination of CuO/CuS could be furtherincreased by the presence of other higher voltage cathode activematerials such as MnO₂, NiO, NiOOH, CuAg₂O₄ and the like. Unfortunately,if the individual material characteristics are not properly matched,then any mismatch before, during or after discharge causes theperformance of the later discharging material to be inferior to itsnormal discharge behavior, as was shown in FIG. 2. This is particularlythe case if the first discharging material has a significant volume ordensity change upon discharge, consumes water or electrolyte, orproduces a discharge product that has poor electronic conductivity. Whenthis happens the second discharging material no longer has idealconditions for its discharge, hence the overall behavior of the cell iscompromised, negating the benefit of mixing the two materials.

While this has been demonstrated in the example of FIG. 2, it is furtherexemplified in a situation where soluble sulfur species or sulfide ispresent in the mix with MnO₂, and where the sulfur species appears tointerfere with the proton intercalation of the MnO₂, therebysignificantly reducing the operating voltage of the MnO₂ portion. It isbelieved that if the MnO₂ is separated from the mixture of CuO and CuS,or the sulfur species are prevented from contacting the MnO₂, thisdetrimental effect would be minimized. Therefore, to prevent thereduction of the operating voltage due to any of the foregoing reasons(physical and/or chemical), a method is provided whereby the differentactive materials are not mixed together. Rather, the individual activematerials that possess a mismatch are kept in separate layers or pelletswhereby one material only minimally affects the behavior of the seconddischarging material.

Each layer or pellet comprises either a distinct cathode active materialor a physical mixture of the materials suitable for use in combinationwith the invention. It is specifically contemplated that where separatecathode layers or pellets are provided, at least one layer or pellet cancomprise a physical mixture of copper oxide with another additive (e.g.,a metal oxide or sulfide) while another layer or pellet can comprise amixed compound. Likewise, a layer or pellet can comprise a physicalmixture of a mixed oxide compound with an additive (e.g., another metaloxide or sulfide).

The concept is shown in FIG. 9 for the case of CuO and MnO₂. Inparticular, a homogeneous physical mixture of EMD and CuO is shownwhere, after the initial EMD discharge and transition, the CuO dischargeoccurs at a significantly lower voltage than the pure CuO discharge thatis also shown. The use of a layered cathode, where the EMD and CuO arein separate layers on top of each other as in FIG. 10, significantlymitigates the problem caused by interaction between the EMD and CuO.

In a button cell battery where the cathode is in a disk form, the activematerials can be in layers one over the other, or as concentric circles(discs) one within the other as shown in FIG. 10. The active materialscan also be in the form of semicircular segments placed beside oneanother.

For a prolate cylindrical battery configuration, which uses acylindrical cathode in a can, either pressed externally and inserted, orfabricated in-situ in the can, the same concept can be used to keep thematerials separated as shown in FIG. 11. The materials are in contact,but are not mixed or blended together.

It is recognized that a mixture of CuO and CuS in a cathode can raisethe operating voltage of the cathode in alkaline solution compared to acathode including CuO alone. However, it has been discovered that amixture of CuO and CuS can react when stored in an alkaline solution,and produce soluble sulfur species that, if allowed to migrate unheededto the anode, can adversely affect the performance of the zinc anode.For purposes herein those species that adversely impact the performanceof a zinc anode are referred to as anode-fouling species. Examples ofanode-fouling species are well known to those skilled in the art andinclude various Cu, Ag, S, Fe, Ni, and Sb species.

For instance, it is recognized that, when the cathode contains sulfur,one or more sulfur species, such as sulfide, sulfate, sulfite, orthiosulfate may be produced that tend to migrate to the anode, therebyfouling the anode. In these situations, it is desirable to furtherprovide an additive that reduces the ability of the sulfur species tofoul the anode. The additive can be included in the anode, cathode,electrolyte, or separator and operate at the location whereanode-fouling species would be generated, at the separator where thefouling species would migrate through the separator, or afteranode-fouling species migrate through the separator from the cathodetowards the anode but prior to the fouling species interact with andfoul the anode. The additive can operate either by binding to the sulfurspecies or chemically interacting (e.g. by oxidation, reductioncomplexing, coordinating, etc . . . ) with the sulfur species to form anon-anode-fouling product, such as a metal sulfide or non-anode-foulingsulfate having a reduced solubility. Furthermore, the additive canreduce the effect of anode-fouling soluble species by modulating thelocal hydroxide ion concentration within the electrode. Precipitation isa vehicle for removing soluble species from solution by reducing theirsolubility. The solubilities are represented by their K_(sp) value. Ithas been determined that low solubility products of the product of thereaction between the additive and the anode-fouling soluble species arebeneficial. One such beneficial solubility product has been found to beless than or equal to 2×10⁻²⁵. The additive can also catalyze thedis-proportionation between the various sulfur species that exist inalkaline electrolytes to convert them to less anode-fouling species,thereby reducing the fouling. It will thus be appreciated that theadditive can mitigate anode-fouling either by effectively limitingsulfur migration from the cathode to the anode, and/or reacting with thesulfur species to form an innocuous product or a less fouling product.Various versions of the present invention recognize that suitableadditives include, but are not limited to, bismuth oxide (Bi₂O₃),bismuth hydroxide (Bi(OH)₃), and zinc oxide (ZnO). Example 9 below, forinstance, describes the effect of a ZnO additive in a CuO/CuS cathode.Each of these chemicals, when added to a sulfur-containing cathode, havebeen found to reduce the ability of the sulfur species to foul theanode, either by reacting with the sulfur species or by effectivelylimiting the sulfur species from migrating through the separator to theanode. One skilled in the art will recognize that additives performing asimilar function can also be targeted toward anode fouling solublecopper species. Complexing agents like EDTA (ethylene diaminetetra-acetic acid), ethanol amines, oxalic or citric acid etc. interactwith metal ions in solution.

Anode:

A high capacity anode-formulation is also provided for use in alkalinecells. As noted, cathodes of conventional alkaline cells, for examplecathodes whose cathode active ingredient is MnO₂, consume more water bythe cathodic reaction than is produced by the anodic reaction (i.e., thereaction of zinc anode and electrolyte). Hence the total cell reaction,as represented, consumes water as shown below and are thus said to be“water consuming”Zn+MnO₂+H₂O→ZnO+MnOOH

The zinc anodes of conventional alkaline cells are thus generallylimited to a concentration of zinc by weight below 70% in the anodebecause higher zinc loadings will not discharge efficiently as the anodewould not contain sufficient quantities of electrolyte to properlysustain the water consuming reaction in the cathode. Furthermore, highzinc loadings with conventional particle size distributions result inhigher mass transfer polarization due to the low porosity of theseanodes leading to early anode passivation and premature failure.

The anode provided in accordance with an embodiment is usable in anelectrochemical cell whose cathode consumes less water than conventionalalkaline manganese dioxide cells, and achieves a higher dischargeefficiency compared to conventional cells. Because the copper oxide andmixed copper oxide active materials of the cathode arelow-water-consuming, the amount of electrolyte required in the anode isreduced relative to a conventional zinc manganese dioxide alkaline cell.The low-water consuming reaction advantageously permits an increase inzinc loading in the anode and thereby facilitating a longer cell servicelife.

It has been determined that a CuO-containing cathode is one example of acathode that consumes less water than alkaline manganese dioxide cells.A zinc/air battery cathode is an example wherein the reaction does notconsume water and the anode operates efficiently at anode zinc loadingsof 68% to 76% by weight relative to the total weight of the anode(including electrolyte), which is significantly higher than in aconventional alkaline manganese cell.

The anode thus constructed in accordance with an embodiment can be“drier” than conventional electrochemical cells, meaning that the anodehas a higher loading of zinc particles that can be efficientlydischarged with reduced electrolyte concentrations given the followinganodic cell reaction:Zn+4OH⁻→Zn(OH)₄ ²⁻+2e⁻

In conventional alkaline batteries, the depletion of hydroxide ions canbecome prominent during medium and high continuous discharge rates(e.g., greater than 250 mA for a size AA cell) and induce depressed cellperformance due to anode failure in these cases. Furthermore when theelectrolyte is saturated with zincate Zn(OH)₄ ²⁻produced in the abovereaction, the zincate precipitates to form zinc oxide which, in turn,passivates the zinc anode, thereby lowering cell performance.Conventional zinc powders contain particles having a wide distributionof particle sizes ranging from a few microns to about 1000 microns, withmost of the particle size distribution ranging between 25 microns and500 microns. Therefore, in order to achieve proper discharge of suchconventional zinc powders, a KOH concentration above 34% isconventionally used and necessary.

The present inventors have discovered that a narrow particle sizedistribution as described in more detail below allows the use ofelectrolyte concentrations significantly lower than in conventionalalkaline batteries. This in turn further favors lower Cu solubility intothe electrolyte, better wetting of the cathode surface and assists thedischarge efficiency of the cathode.

Specifically, a KOH concentration less than 36% (for example between 25%and 34% KOH concentration) is desirable, using principles of the presentinvention while avoiding premature anode passivation that would occur ina conventional cell.

Various aspects of the present invention recognize that the particlesize distribution (“PSD”) of the zinc plays a role in enhancing theeffectiveness of discharge in a low zinc loading anode, as is describedin more detail below. In particular, several PSD's have been identifiedthat allow the use of the lower electrolyte concentrations whileproviding the necessary anode porosity for an efficient discharge athigh zinc loadings.

The present inventors have recognized that physical modifications to theanode can also improve cell service life, either alone or in combinationwith chemical modifications noted above. For example, one canefficiently discharge cells having an advantageously lower concentrationof hydroxide ions in the electrolyte than can be used in conventionalcells by reducing diffusion resistance for the hydroxide ions. This canbe accomplished, for example, by adjusting the zinc particle sizedistribution to provide in the anode a narrow distribution of similarzinc particle sizes, thereby enhancing porosity (diffusion paths) forthe hydroxide ion transport. In addition to improving mass transport inthe gelled anode matrix, the particle size distributions of thisinvention also provide increased porosity, which allow for lessprecipitation of ZnO on the zinc particle surface, thereby delayinganode passivation compared to the particle size distributions typicallyfound in conventional cells. This approach is effective for use in theanodes of various aspects of the invention and can be used alone or incombination with other improvements disclosed herein.

Similarly, a suitable zinc particle size distribution is one in which atleast about 70% of the particles have a standard mesh-sieved particlesize within a 100 micron size range and in which the mode of thedistribution is between about 100 microns and about 300 microns. It isdesirable that 70% of the particles be distributed in a sizedistribution range even more narrow than 100 microns, for example 50microns or even 40 microns or less.

A suitable gelled anode as described herein comprises a metal alloypowder (desirably an alloyed zinc powder), a gelling agent and analkaline electrolyte. One skilled in the art can readily select asuitable zinc powder ( alloyed with In, Bi, Ca, Al, Pb, etc). As usedherein, “zinc” refers to a zinc particle that may include an alloy ofzinc as is well known to one skilled in the art. Another aspect of theelectrochemical cells described herein is that the anode may containlittle or no mercury (e.g., less than about 0.025% by weight). It isnoted that known gelling agents other than the desirable sodiumpolyacrylate gelling agent are suitable for use in various aspects ofthe present invention. Such gelling agents include carboxymethylcellulose, crosslinked-type branched polyacrylate acid, natural gum, andthe like.

The present inventors recognize that another factor that controls cellperformance relates to the surface area of the anode. Specifically,increasing the active anode electrode surface area provides sufficientactive reaction sites needed to keep up with the cathode reaction athigh discharge rates. Accordingly, cells are provided having apredetermined amount of zinc particles (which may either be in the formof zinc or a zinc alloy) added to the anode gel. In accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention contemplates zinc particles lessthan about 75 microns (−200 mesh size), that is, particles that pass a200 mesh screen size are present in the anode in an amount less thanabout 10%, by weight relative to the total zinc in the anode (includingcoarse zinc particles), and desirably within the range of 1% and 10%,alternatively between the range of 1% and 8%, or alternatively withinthe range of 4% and 8%; it being appreciated that smaller particlesfurther increase the effective surface area of the anode. Mesh sizes arestated herein to specify a range of particle sizes. For example, −200mesh indicates particles smaller than 75 microns, while +200 meshindicates particles larger than 75 microns. Alternatively, desirableresults may also be attained using an amount of zinc fines greater than10%, while the zinc particles having a diameter between 75 and 105microns (+75 and −140 mesh size) may be present at anywhere between 1%and 50%, and more suitably between 10% and 40%, by weight of total zincpresent in the anode.

Various aspects of the present invention recognize that multiple rangesof zinc particles having a diameter less than 105 microns (−140 meshsize) including particles between 75 and 105 microns (+200 and −140 meshsize) and zinc fines less than 75 microns (−200 mesh size), may be usedto increase cell performance. For instance, the anode may include zincparticles between 75 and 105 micrometers, with the advantages in cellperformance being enhanced when the anode gel has an electrolyte (KOH)concentration less than 30%, alternatively between 20% and 30%. Whenzinc fines have a size between the range of 20 and 75 micrometers (+625and −200 mesh size), and alternatively between 38 and 75 micrometers(+400 and −200 mesh size), cell performance is particularly enhancedwhen the KOH concentration is between 30% and 40%, and desirably between33% and 38%. Yet another suitable range is between 20% and 34%,alternatively, between 25% and 33%, and alternatively, between 25% and30%. A “low KOH concentration” as used in this disclosure refers to aKOH concentration within or below any of the above-stated ranges.

Although it is known that improved cell performance can result from theuse of zinc fines in combination with the low KOH concentrations, oneskilled in the art would also recognize the benefits of the use of zincfines and reduced KOH concentration individually.

While it is particularly desirable to increase the cell operatingvoltage in CuO containing cells which are generally associated withlower cell potentials, it will be appreciated that certain aspects ofthe present invention provide for cathodes that contain oxides thatcomprise copper, but wherein the cathode contains not CuO alone, but CuOin combination with other oxides, sulfides, or mixed copper oxidematerials. In certain embodiments, the cathode may be more waterconsuming than in others. Depending upon the composition of the cathode,one skilled in the art will be able to determine the acceptablemodification to the anode that corresponds to the reduced waterconsumption of such cathodes.

Lower electrolyte concentrations are desirable in the CuO containingsystems to improve reaction kinetics, reduce copper ion dissolution(hence migration into the anode), and achieve a high operating voltage.The use of a lower concentration electrolyte (relative to theelectrolyte concentration in the anode) to prewet the cathode isbelieved to result in performance improvements attributed to improvedwettability of the cathode. Lower copper ion migration to the zincreduces self-discharge and gassing at the anode during storage, whichresults in improved shelf life. Low anode polarization also contributesto achieving the desired close circuit voltage in the cell.

Various versions of the anode described herein result in a number ofadvancements in the art when compared to conventional anodes usable in atypical Zn/MnO₂ alkaline cell. These advancements include:

1. Higher zinc loadings that take advantage of the low-water consumingcathode reaction compared to a conventional Zn/MnO₂ alkaline cell. Ifone were to increase zinc loadings in a conventional alkaline cell, itwould typically result in less electrolyte (less water) available forthe cathode and thereby inhibit cathode discharge performance. The highwater consuming chemistry therefore restricts the overall cell design inconventional cells. In addition, the high capacity and/or density of CuOallows higher capacity cathodes to be packed in less volume than MnO₂cathodes, allowing higher quantities of anode to be placed in the cells,while still maintaining a level of electrolyte required by the cell.This significantly increases the anode capacity to cell volume ratio(Ah/cc) compared to conventional alkaline cells into a range that wasnot previously known to be attainable. For instance, conventionalcommercial alkaline cells are restricted to an anode capacity/internalcell volume ratio of ˜0.5 Ah/cc based on a zinc capacity of 820 mAh/gand an MnO₂ capacity of 400 mAh/g based on a 1.33 electron reduction ofMnO₂. A cell constructed in accordance with various aspects of thepresent invention achieves an anode capacity/cell internal volumeratio>0.5 Ah/cc, between 0.55 and 0.9 Ah/cc, and further between 0.55and 0.7 Ah/cc. The PSD, particle shape, and electrolyte concentration ofthis invention allows high zinc loading anodes to be discharged at ahigh efficiency. This results in higher cell capacity.

2. The proper choice of zinc powder PSD of this invention enables theuse of lower electrolyte concentrations without the prematurepassivation that would otherwise occur with regular powders inconventional alkaline cells. In particular, passivation generally occursin electrochemical cells when the anodic reaction produces zinc oxide,which covers the remaining zinc in the anode, thereby preventing the KOHfrom accessing and reacting with the remaining zinc. It is well knownthat conventional MnO₂ alkaline cell anodes having conventional PSDprematurely passivate when lower electrolyte concentrations are used.Conventional anode particle sizes are distributed between 45-500microns, thus within a broad range of 455 microns, rather than a narrowrange of 100 to 150 microns that is envisaged by the present inventors.

In accordance with an alternative embodiment, the zinc PSD's disclosedherein desirably can be distributed within a narrow window of 200microns and, alternatively, 150 microns, meaning that between andincluding 90% and 95%, and up to 100%, of the particle sizes, by weight,are within the 150, or 200, micron window, and in particular are tightdistributions substantially centered around 100 μm, 175 μm and 250 μm,and 300 μm (meaning that between and including 90% and 95%, and up to100% of the zinc particles have particle sizes centered around thespecified sizes). One skilled in the art will recognize that mesh sizescorresponding to these particle sizes can be identified using ASTMDesignation: B214-99. The PSD's herein increase the zinc anode porosity,thereby reducing passivation. A zinc powder with a tight PSD centeredaround 100 μm is illustrated, for example, in FIG. 12. The inventionincludes similar distributions centered about 175 μm and 250 μm, asdescribed above. The zinc powder illustrated in FIG. 12 includesadditives including bismuth, indium, and lead as will be understood bythose having ordinary skill in the art.

3. The PSD's when combined with a lower electrolyte concentrationtypically result in a higher cell operating voltage. In particular, FIG.13 illustrates cell performance for 1) a first control cell having a 37%electrolyte concentration (concentration by weight of KOH with respectto the electrolyte mixture) and a 2% zinc oxide concentration in theanode, and a conventionally distributed anode, and 2) a second cellconstructed in accordance with the principles discussed herein having anelectrolyte at 30% KOH concentration and 2% zinc oxide concentration byweight in the anode, and an anode distribution as described herein. FIG.13 thus illustrates the increase in operating voltage when anodes asdescribed herein are used in Zinc-CuO cells. It should be appreciatedthat the initial zinc oxide concentration in the anode before celldischarge can be between 0.5% and 6% by weight, and that theconcentration of zinc oxide is a function of the electrolyteconcentration since solubility of ZnO is a function of KOHconcentration. Specifically, as the electrolyte concentration decreases,the concentration of zinc oxide will increase, and vice versa.

4. Lower electrolyte concentrations are believed to reduce copper ionsolubility, resulting in lower copper ion migration to the anode.Referring now to FIG. 14, electrolytes of concentration 30% KOH and 35%KOH are mixed with CuO at 1) room temperature, and 2) 60 degrees C. Inboth cases, the solubility of CuO in KOH increased with increasing KOHconcentrations. Reduction of the equilibrium KOH concentration in thecell will reduce the dissolution of copper ions in the cathode. Withoutbeing limited to theory, the reduction of copper ion dissolution andmigration is believed to result in lower self-discharge and gassing atthe anode, which is believed to improve battery shelf life.

5. Lower electrolyte concentrations also improve the wettability of theCuO containing cathode, which is believed to result in better reactionkinetics. CuO is more hydrophobic than EMD MnO₂ as can be seen in FIG.15 and the use of lower prewet KOH concentration to improve thewettability of the cathode has resulted in improved performance ofCuO/Zn cells.

Separator

One version of a suitable separator material has a polymer backboneformed from a straight chain, a branched chain, or variants thereof.Examples of materials having such a backbone that have been found toprovide a suitable separator include polyvinyl alcohol, (PVA), poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol—EVOH), copolymers of polystyrene, blends orco-extrusions of these and like materials with materials such aspolyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and variants of the foregoing.Additional suitable separator materials include cellulosic films such ascellophane and variants thereof. However, not all such polymers aresuitable. Rather, suitable polymers retain electrolyte in the separatorwhere, in the separator, the retained electrolytes have a pH value lowerthan the bulk electrolyte found in the cathode and the anode. Theseparator-retained electrolyte desirably has a pH value that is 0.5 to 3pH units lower than the pH of the bulk electrolyte. The extent to whichelectrolyte is retained in the separator, and the extent to which the pHof the retained electrolyte can vary from that of the bulk electrolyte,can be modulated by polymer side groups provided on the backbone.Alcohol side groups are suitable, ranging from simple hydroxyl groups tomore complex side chains that comprise at least one alcohol moiety,including linear, cyclic and branched side chains that can comprisecarbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, silicon, and the like. Other sidegroups such as carboxylic acid functional groups can be provided on theseparator to enhance or inhibit electrolyte retention or pH in theseparator. The separator is hydrated by the bulk alkaline aqueouselectrolyte, as in conventional cells, but the electrolyte retained inthe hydrated separator has a characteristic pH lower than that of thebulk electrolyte.

The separator can be a film and is optionally formed on the cathode orinserted into the cell during cell manufacture. A particularly suitablefilm has as small a cross-sectional thickness as is practical whileretaining manufacturing processibility (e.g., flexibility, mechanicalstability, integrity at processing temperatures, integrity within thecell, and the like), adequate electrolyte absorption, as well as theadvantageous properties noted herein. Suitable dry film thicknessestypically range from about 10 to about 250 microns. The presentinventors have recognized that depending on the difference between thepH value of the bulk electrolyte and the pH value of the electrolyteretained in the separator, the thickness of a film separator may beselectively optimized to effectively limit the migration ofanode-fouling soluble species.

One version of the present invention includes a sealed separator systemfor an electrochemical cell that is disposed between a gelled zinc anodeof the type described above and a cathode containing soluble species ofcopper, sulfur, or both, as described above. It should thus beappreciated that the term “sealed separator system” is used herein todefine a structure that physically separates the cell anode from thecathode, enables hydroxyl ions and water to transfer between the anodeand cathode, limits transport other than through the material itself byvirtue of a seam and bottom seal, and effectively limits the migrationthrough the separator of other soluble species such as copper, silver,nickel, iodate, and sulfur species from the cathode to the anode.

The utility of an alkaline electrochemical cell constructed inaccordance with the principles of the present invention can besignificantly enhanced by providing in the cell an improvedbarrier-separator system that effectively limits the migration ofanode-fouling soluble species from the cathode into the anodecompartment while permitting migration of hydroxyl ions. With certaincathode materials, such as CuO, CuS, CuAg₂O₄ and Cu₂Ag₂O₃, it isadvantageous to use a separator system that employs a barrier tomigration of the soluble species such as Cu, Ag, S, and the like, thatare produced (migration reduced by at least about 50%; alternatively atleast about 60%; finally at least about 70% in a test as describedherein). Such barrier materials can include PVA (polyvinyl alcohol)films, modified or crosslinked PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) films, EVOH(ethyl vinyl alcohol), cellulose type films, and laminated ornon-laminated combinations or synthetic hybrids of such films. Thesematerials enable a larger variety of oxides, sulfides, and metalcomplexes to be used as cathode active materials in accordance withaspects of the present invention to produce a battery with improvedshelf life.

The separator can further have structure and conductivity enhancingagents incorporated therein. The separator can be a conformal separatorfor use in an electrochemical cell wherein the separator comprisesmaterials that effectively limit (i.e., at least about 50%,alternatively at least about 60%; at least about 70%; and finally atleast about 90%) the soluble species from passing there-through.

The cathode of the invention can also be provided with an agent thateffectively limits anode-fouling soluble species from migrating from thecathode toward the anode by interacting with the soluble species. Agentssuch as polyvinyl alcohol, activated carbon, natural and synthetic claysand silicates such as Laponite, etc. have shown an ability to adsorb orblock ionic species.

Aspects of the present invention thus overcome at least severaldifficulties associated with cells having soluble cathode materials inthe cathode. These difficulties include:

1. Soluble copper or silver species from cathodes tend to diffuse andmigrate to the anode side and deposit in the metallic form and can causebridge shorting, anode gassing, or anode passivation. Bridge shortingoccurs when a material such as zinc oxide, copper, or silver depositsand penetrates through the separator, forming a bridge between the anodeand cathode, thereby shortening the battery life. Anode passivation canlead to varying degrees of anode-fouling, ranging from an increase ofthe anode resistance (hence higher internal resistance in the battery)to a complete shutdown of the anode reaction.

Sulfur species can also dissolve from the sulfide additives or othersulfur containing coumpounds present to form soluble sulfur species inthe additives or other sulfur-containing compounds present to formsoluble sulfur species in the alkaline electrolytes. These species canfurther react with each other and with other ions dissolved in theelectrolyte, precipitating out either within the separator or at theseparator-to-electrode interface, thereby hindering electrolytetransport between the cathode and anode or causing bridge shorting.

2. When the cathode contains sulfur either as a sulfide or as sulfurmixed with a metal oxide, the sulfide and sulfur can react with alkaliand alkaline-earth hydroxides to form sulfides, polysulfides,thiosulfates, and sulfites in solution, which are capable of diffusingand/or migrating to the anode side of the cell, thereby passivating theanode and interfering with the discharge reaction as well as shelf life.

3. The above mentioned species can also react with each other and withother ions dissolved in the electrolyte, precipitating out either withinthe separator or at the separator-to-electrode interface, therebyblocking desirable ionic and electrolytic transport between the cathodeand anode.

4. Even when the separator material effectively limits the migration ofsoluble copper species, silver species, sulfides, polysulfides,thiosulfates, sulfites, iodates, or similar anode-fouling solublespecies, it should be appreciated that cylindrical cell separators haveseams (in particular along one or more ends and the side of acylindrical cell separator) that, if not adequately sealed, can provideavenues for these species to still diffuse and migrate into the anode.Conventional cylindrical cell separators cannot adequately limit suchsoluble species from migrating into the anode compartment. A “side seam”is defined herein as a seam located at overlapping ends (or potentiallyadjacent ends) of a cylindrical separator. An “end seam” is definedherein as a seam disposed at one of the open ends of a cylindrical cellseparator. It should thus be appreciated that the terms “positive end”and “negative end” refers to the ends of the separator that are disposedproximal the positive and negative ends of a cylindrical cell,respectively, after separator installation into the cell. A “peripheralend seam” is defined herein as the outer periphery of a flat and round,square or rectangular separator that is to be sealed when installed intoa button or prismatic cell.

Various aspects of the present invention provide separator combinationsand configurations that overcome many of the above-mentioneddifficulties for electrochemical cells having or producing a variety ofanode-fouling species, such as copper, silver, and sulfur.

Separator Materials and Combinations:

Difficulties 1, 2, and 3 can be addressed by selecting appropriateseparator materials or combinations of materials.

In accordance with various aspects of the present invention, severalmaterials and combinations of materials have been found effective foralkaline cells having a gelled zinc anode and copper, silver and sulfurions in the cathode. These materials were further evaluated to determinewhat material property effectively limited the migration of theanode-fouling soluble species.

It has been determined that a relatively high physical porosity in theform of open pores that extend through the separator from the anode sideof the separator to the cathode side of the separator is undesirable inthe separator. For instance, cellophanes, PVA, EVOH, TiO₂-filled highmolecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE) membranes, and the like areanticipated as illustrated and described with reference to Examples 1-3below. A HMWPE sample is available from Advanced Membrane Systems,located in Billerica, Mass., and is a porous membrane that can be filledwith TiO₂ to decrease the porosity and increase the tortuosity of theseparator pores.

It has also been determined that PVA films or fabrics coated orimpregnated with polymers such as PVA, EVA and EVOH (each of which maybe cross-linked), herein defined as a “hybrid separator,” are effectivein limiting the migration of anode-fouling soluble species as describedwith reference to Example 6 below if the porosity is minimized oreliminated.

While a non-woven fabric substrate coated or impregnated with anappropriate polymer like PVA or EVA is effective in limiting Cu, Ag, andS migration, it is desirable to reduce the thickness of the material andalso to form a relatively impervious film using such materials. In thisregard, PVA film may be cast directly from a water-based solution on asubstrate from which the dried film can be easily peeled off. A 10% PVAsolution (Celvol grade 350 PVA from Celanese Ltd., Dallas, Tex.) cast ona Mylar substrate/release film at 70° C. Experiments per the prescribedExclusion Test method show that the film possesses desirable barrierproperties against migration of copper, silver and sulfur species.Commercially available PVA films have also been evaluated, showingsimilar trends. One example of a manufacturer of such PVA films isMonosol LLC located in Portage, Ind. Several samples from Monosol havebeen evaluated, some containing processing aids and/or plasticizers. Theresistance of the films in concentrated KOH has also been measured,showing that as the ability to effectively limit the migration ofanode-fouling species improves, the ionic resistance increases. Ingeneral, PVA film samples containing significant amounts of plasticizerare less effective at limiting migration of soluble species whilemaintaining acceptably low ionic resistance. It may be appreciated bythose skilled in the art, that effective limitation of the migration ofsoluble species can be attained by selecting the polymer properties,including the chemical composition, molecular weight, molecular weightdistribution, additives and by appropriate cross-linking.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that other polymer solutionsmay also be used to coat or impregnate non-woven or cellophaneseparators and achieve effects similar to those seen with PVA when usedas a separator for electrochemical cells having a zinc anode and acathode that contains anode-fouling soluble species. Alternatively,polymer solutions can coat the anode or cathode directly, therebyproviding a conformal separator. It should thus be appreciated that manyof the polymer solutions discussed below as forming part of a hybridseparator (e.g., a non-woven fabric separator coated or impregnated withthe polymer) can alternatively be applied directly to the inner cathodesurface or outer anode surface to provide a conformal separator thatenables hydroxide ion transport while effectively limiting the migrationof soluble copper, silver, and sulfur species. This type of separatorcan also minimize the need for separate side seam or bottom seal.

Other such polymers are ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) emulsion (thatcontains vinyl acetate monomers), vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymers andvinyl acetate polymers that can be coated or impregnated onto a nonwovenseparator to effectively limit the migration of anode-fouling solublespecies such as, for example, copper, silver, sulfides, polysulfides,thiosulfates, sulfites, iodates, iodides, phosphates, silicates, orcarbonates as described in Example 7 below. Another suitable polymer isEVOH.

Organic or inorganic materials, such as Laponite, Bentonite or smectiteclays, or clay like materials, can also be incorporated into the polymersolutions to further enhance the performance of the polymer coatedseparator by providing structure or enhancing ion transport or ionicconductivity. The performance of a separator having Laponiteincorporated into a cross-linked PVA-coated non-woven F3T23 separator ina 357 size cell is illustrated and described below in Example 8.

It has further been discovered that a separator can include a firstgroup (Group I) of separator materials (e.g. cellophane, TiO₂ filledHMWPE, etc. ) that effectively limits the migration of the anode-foulingsoluble copper and silver species in combination with a second group(Group II) of separator materials (e.g. PVA film or PVA coated on orimpregnated in a non-woven separator, with or without cross-linking)that effectively limits the migration of the anode-fouling solublesulfur species. The combination effectively limits soluble copper, Agand sulfur species. A separator including a combination of Groups I andII is thus effective in minimizing the difficulties 1, 2, and 3discussed above. Such a separator is tested below in Examples 5 and 6.The two separator materials can be stacked, laminated, or coated invarious combinations. For instance, a Group I material can be coatedonto an anode-facing or cathode-facing surface of a non-woven separatorof Group II (or layers of suitable non-woven separators), oralternatively can be placed between adjacent layers of non-wovenseparator coated with PVA or a combination of suitable non-wovenseparators.

One measure of the suitability of a separator to effectively limit themigration of anode-fouling soluble species is the air permeability ofthe separator. Air permeability can be measured in Gurley seconds, asappreciated by one having ordinary skill in the art. Because the Gurleytest measures the length of time necessary to pass a predeterminedvolume of air through a separator, a longer time measurement is anindication of low air permeability. A separator having a Gurley AirPermeability of 500 Gurley seconds or higher has been found suitable foruse in an electrochemical cell described above, while overcomingdifficulties 1, 2, and 3. The Gurley measurement was taken using ModelNo. 4150N, commercially available from Gurley Precision Instruments,located in Troy, N.Y., at a pressure drop of 12.2 inches of water todisplace 10 cc air through a 1 sq. inch area. The higher the Gurley airpermeability, the better. One having ordinary skill in the art will nowrecognize that a film separator having a relatively high Gurley airpermeability will have few, if any, open pores.

It is to be appreciated that air permeability is not necessarily anaccurate indicator of the permeability of the separator when wet withelectrolyte containing the anode-fouling soluble species. Hence, a moredirect measure of the suitability of a separator to effectively limitthe migration of the anode-fouling soluble species is to use the resultsof a direct measurement analysis such as the Exclusion Test describedbelow.

The separator is also compatible with known variations and improvementsin cathode, anode and electrolyte structure and chemistry, but findsparticular advantage for cells having a cathode that contains one ormore cathode active materials comprising at least one of a primary oxideor sulfide of a metal, a binary oxide or sulfide of a metal, a ternaryoxide or sulfide of a metal or a quaternary oxide or sulfide of a metal,where the metal is selected from manganese, copper, nickel, iron andsilver, that can dissolve to form one or more anode-fouling solublespecies, including but not limited to ionic metallic species and sulfurspecies, that can disadvantageously migrate from the cathode to theanode in the bulk electrolyte fluid in fluid communication with both thecathode and the anode. As used herein, “binary,” “ternary,” and“quaternary” refer to containing two, three or four of a particularspecies. Materials finding utility as cathode active materials includebut are not limited to manganese dioxide, copper sulfide, copper oxide,copper hydroxide, nickel oxyhydroxide, silver oxides, copper iodate,nickel iodate, copper fluoride, copper chloride, copper bromide, copperiodide, copper silver oxides and copper manganese oxides, andcombinations thereof. Combinations of cathode active materials can beprovided in a cathode as mixtures or as separate entities.

In varying aspects of the invention, routes of fluid communicationbetween the cathode and the anode, including the separator seams, aresealed to minimize or eliminate fluid communication (e.g., of bulkelectrolyte) except through the separator material, at least one layerof which is provided. Moreover, substantially all anode-fouling speciesin the bulk electrolyte are desirably retained on the cathode side ofthe separator and do not migrate to the anode. The separator is thusassociated with an “Exclusion Value” that refers to a percentage ofsoluble species that is prevented from migrating from the cathodethrough the separator to the anode. “Substantially all” is intended toindicate that the separator has an Exclusion Value of at least about50%; alternatively at least about 60%; alternatively at least about 70%,alternatively at least about 80%, alternatively at least about 85%;alternatively at least about 90%; alternatively at least about 95%;alternatively at least about 97%; and finally alternatively at leastabout 99% per the test method developed and described herein.

It will be appreciated, however, that to the extent the anode activematerial of a cell tolerates the soluble species, the cell can toleratesome migration through the separator of anode-fouling soluble species.Generally, therefore, a suitable separator effectively limits themigration of anode-fouling soluble species if the separator passes lessof the species than the anode active material can tolerate withoutbecoming fouled. Substantially lower amounts of the soluble species aredesired, however.

Also, a substantial portion of the electrolyte retained in theseparator, for instance at least about 50%, is associated with(typically, non-covalently associated with) the polymer backbone or itsside groups. A suitable measure of such an association is obtained byanalyzing the separator material to determine the temperature at whichwater retained in the separator melts after freezing. Whereas free waterretained in, but not physically associated with, the polymer melts atabout 0° C., a lower melting temperature indicates an association withthe polymer and, accordingly, a desirable separator. A suitable methodfor determining the temperature at which separator-retained watertransitions to the liquid phase employs a simple differential scanningcalorimetric (DSC) test. A suitably sized sample of the separatormaterial is swollen in water for one hour then immersed in liquidnitrogen until frozen. The frozen sample is melted at a rate of 2° C.per minute in a low temperature DSC apparatus (commercially availablefrom TA Instruments (Newark, Del.)) and the melting temperature isobserved at temperatures in the range of at least as low as about −30°C. to about 20° C. (See attached FIG. 16).

A suitable separator material in a cell also desirably transports waterover hydroxide ions, and hydroxide ions to soluble species. AttachedFIG. 16 depicts the relative amounts of water and KOH transportedthrough various candidate separator materials and shows the relativeability with which separators described herein transport water and KOHacross a sealed separator material as they rebalance the electrolyte OH⁻and H₂O concentrations while the cell discharges. This is an indicationof “osmotic” transport.

Separator Configuration and Seam and Bottom Sealing:

Difficulty number 4 described above (involving ion permeability throughthe separator side and/or end seam(s)) is addressed by the followingmethods and corresponding apparatus.

A sealed separator, while applicable to all battery systems, findsparticular applicability to a system such as that described herein,where soluble species from one electrode can migrate to the otherelectrode, thereby degrading performance or shelf life. These aregenerally referred to as anode-fouling soluble species. In such cases,separator material alone can be insufficient because soluble species canmigrate around a seam or end of the separator, unless a substantiallyimpervious seal is provided.

As described above, it is desirable that fluid communication between thecathode and the anode via routes around the separator is minimized oreliminated by sealing the separator such that the anode is insubstantial fluid isolation from the cathode except via a route throughthe separator. The method of sealing the separator material can beachieved by known methods, including adhesive sealing, heat sealing,ultrasonic sealing, and the like. The separator so formed can take theshape of a tube having a closed end. For water-soluble separatormaterials, including polyvinyl alcohol, softening the materials with alimited amount of water and then sealing with heat or pressure or bothcan form the seal. This arrangement is desirable as the fused separatorseal typically limits the likelihood of an undesired channel for directfluid communication between the cathode and the anode.

In a button or prismatic flat cell, a good seal is generally attainableto effectively limit anode-fouling soluble species from seeping aroundthe separator, since the separator is pressed tightly against a flatsurface (e.g., the disc or prismatic shaped electrode) by an opposingmember such as an insulating grommet. In cylindrical cells however, agood seal is not easily achieved, since for ease, speed and cost ofmanufacture, the separator is normally inserted as a convolute, spiralwound tube or cross-placed into the cavity and the seam is difficult toseal.

A cylindrical separator can be provided having an outer periphery and afirst and second end. The end of the separator to be disposed proximalthe positive terminal end of the cell can be seamless, either duringfabrication of the separator (i.e., via extrusion, melt blowing, and thelike) or can be sealed by chemical or physical means to effectivelylimit the migration of anode-fouling soluble species. Chemical sealingmethods include the use of an adhesive with or without a chemical bondinvolved. Physical sealing methods include heat (welding), vibration(e.g. ultrasonic bonding), and application of pressure or combinationsthereof. Various combinations of chemical and/or physical sealingmethods may also be applied depending on the material of choice—forexample, to bond a PVA film to itself, use of heat, water and/orpressure can be used to produce an effective seal/joint.

Among the chemical sealing methods, one method of forming such a sealinvolves using a cross-linkable polymer and a cross-linking agent toprovide at least a seam seal and a bottom seal and desirably also a topseal (after introduction of the gelled anode into the separator cavity).

A seam-sealed and bottom sealed separator configuration can be producedexternally and then inserted into a cell, or can be produced in situafter insertion of a spirally wound, convolute or cross-placed separatortube into a cell cavity.

Cross-linking locks a polymer in place and produces a seal that isintact throughout the life of the battery. Simple coagulation of thepolymer or precipitation in a high pH environment typically produces agelatinous mass that can move or be displaced by expansion orcontraction during operation or physical or mechanical shock in normalhandling or transportation, thereby compromising the seal. Adhesivepolymers without cross-linking may also be used, it being desired, ofcourse, that the seal produced is stable in the battery electrolyte overthe life of the battery and it does not permit more transport ofanode-fouling species at the seam or bottom seal, than the separatormaterial itself.

With the proper choice of materials, both cross-linking and coagulationcan be effective. Two suitable separator materials are presented asexamples of ex-situ seals. One material is cellophane and the other is ahybrid separator, which comprises a non-woven fabric coated with PVA,which is cross-linked using a cross-linking agent. Sufficient loading ofPVA is necessary (>5 g/m²) to make the non-woven paper substantiallyimpermeable to air, with Gurley air permeability>500 sec. Low airpermeability ensures that in a battery, when the polymer swells uponabsorbing electrolyte, there would be substantially no paths for thetransport of the anode-fouling soluble species through the material. Tomake a seam seal, a layer of viscous PVA solution (e.g., 2-10% by weightin water) is applied near the seam, the two surfaces brought together,followed by application of a thin layer of a cross-linking agent such assodium borate or others known in the art. The seal area cross-linksimmediately, while also bonding the two surfaces together. A simple testof 5 days soak in concentrated KOH electrolyte shows that the seam isintact and cannot be physically torn apart, suggesting good operationalcharacteristics in a battery. The efficacy of the seal in effectivelylimiting anode-fouling soluble species may be tested using the ExclusionTest described herein. Other suitable cross-linkable polymers suitableor use as the adhesive include but are not limited to polyethyleneglycol, polyvinylbutyral, and polyvinylpyrrolidone.

To produce a bottom seal, one end of a wound separator tube with atleast some overlap between layers (and with a mandrel inside) is foldedto form a cup over a disk shaped piece of the same or otherseparator-placed on the end face of the mandrel followed by a drop ofthe cross-linkable polymer (e.g. PVA). Upon addition of sufficientcross-linking agent, a cross-linked, adherent composite folded bottom iscreated, which effectively limits the migration of the anode-foulingsoluble species. The tubular shaped separator can then be utilized toproduce a battery in the traditional manner.

While an ex-situ seal as described above is very effective, it is notthe most desirable from a battery design and performance perspectivebecause there is often a gap that exists between the sealed tube and thecathode cavity. This space can create a poor wetted interface betweenthe anode and the cathode, leading to poor battery performance,particularly after prolonged shelf storage. One solution to this problemis to use a separator that swells significantly upon electrolyteabsorption, thereby filling the space that existed between the dry tubeand the cathode. A pleated tubular shaped separator-that can expandafter insertion can also be used. Another solution to the problem is toproduce such a seal in-situ after insertion of a spiral wound tube (forexample), as described below for the case of a cross-linkablepolymer-coated non-woven separator. The particular advantage of anin-situ aspect is that when an unsealed spirally wound tube orcross-placed separator is inserted into a cavity, it has the opportunityto expand into the volume available and reduce the gap between itselfand the cathode material to produce a good interface. This can befurther aided in the case of a wound tube in the process of removing theinsertion mandrel, by a slight counter-directional twist or a controlledjet of gas to allow or cause the separator to expand into the cavitysince the seam is not yet sealed.

Hence in a desired embodiment, to obtain an in-situ seal, a non-wovenseparator may be coated with sufficient loading of a mixture of across-linkable polymer (e.g., PVA) and a cross-linking agent (e.g. aborate derivative) to render it substantially impervious (Gurley airpermeability>500 sec). The cross-linking agent is selected such that itwill not immediately cross-link the PVA (i.e. remain dormant untilactivated appropriately). An example of such a borate derivativecross-linking agent is boric acid. In this particular example,cross-linking will occur when the pH increases above 7 in the batteryafter (KOH) electrolyte contacts the separator, thereby activating thecross-linking agent. The substantially dry PVA/boric acid coatedseparator is wound around a mandrel (as in present day alkaline cellmanufacturing) with at least some overlap between layers. One end isfolded to form a cup shaped bottom, and the tube is inserted into acathode cavity. A bottom disk comprising the same or other separatormaterial coated with a cross-linkable polymer and cross-linking agent,as above, is next inserted into the tube so as to rest inside the foldedbottom of the wound separator tube. When a pre-shot of electrolyte isintroduced into the separator tube, or Zn gel containing electrolyte isadded, it will cause cross-linking of the PVA in the presence of theboric acid, simultaneously also forming a seal or bond between adjacentlayers of the separator, the bottom disk and tube, as well as the seamin the overlap region.

Another method of achieving the same objective is to start with anon-woven paper, which has a sufficient amount of cross-linkablepolymer, e.g. PVA (but without cross-linking agent) coated on it torender it substantially impervious (Gurley air permeability>500 sec). Afolded bottom is created and it is inserted into a cathode cavity asdescribed above, followed by insertion of a bottom cup coated orimpregnated with PVA. Cross-linking agent (e.g. sodium borate) is nextapplied to the inserted separator tube, thereby simultaneouslycross-linking and sealing the adjacent layers of the separator tube, thebottom to the bottom cup and the seal region at the overlap. It has beenfound that this process of cross-linking becomes more efficient if theseparator is pre-wet or sprayed with water prior to application of thecross-linker. It should be appreciated that the correct process stepsand conditions should be optimized based on the nature of thecross-linkable polymer and the cross-linker.

Other polymers and/or cross-linking agents can be used to achieve thesame end result. By way of non-limiting example, carboxylic groups canbe introduced into PVA and cross-linked with glutaraldehyde to improvefilm properties, as can regenerated cellulose coated or laminated on PVAor modified PVA. PVA can be copolymerized with acrylic acid tosignificantly lower ionic resistance. Acetylized PVA films can bemodified with polyacrylic acid. Acrylic- or methacrylic acid-grafted PVAcan also be used. Similarly, grafted methacrylic acid on a polyethyleneor polypropylene membrane is also suitable as a separator.

In another aspect, a combination of the ex-situ and in-situ processescan also be used. For example, the PVA can first be applied to the woundseparator seam and bottom of an appropriate separator material followedby insertion into the cell cavity. The requisite amount of sodium borate(or other) cross-linking agent may next be applied into the tube, tocause the assembly to cross-link and seal in place.

An additional aspect of this invention is the optional incorporation ofconductivity and structure-enhancing fillers like Laponite, fumedsilica, Bentonite, etc. into the separator during the polymer coatingprocess. Since higher loadings of PVA than in conventional cells isrequired to make the non-woven layer impervious, this can increase theelectrical resistivity of the separator. Incorporation of appropriatefillers will tend to enhance the conductivity to more acceptable levelsand improve battery discharge characteristics.

A second general method of producing a sealed separator is physical,using a heat-sealable polymeric material, such as PVA, polyethylene,polypropylene, nylon, and the like. The seal is formed by providing alayer of the polymeric material, in the form of a continuous film, orporous fibrous film, and inserting the layer into the area to be sealed(e.g., the outer periphery of a separator to be installed into a size AAcell). The separator then can form a seal under controlled heating withor without application of pressure. The heat sealable polymeric layercan also be applied to one surface of a separator layer (that may or maynot be heat sealable), and subsequently wound into a cylinder, such thatthe overlapping region will comprise a layer of the sealable polymericmaterial interfacing with another separator layer. The heat sealablepolymeric material will thus seal against the other separator layerunder a controlled heating condition. The polymeric material may furtherbe positioned adjacent the outer periphery or the inner peripherycylindrical separator prior to forming the separator into a cylinder.Alternatively, the polymeric material can be applied to the interface oftwo overlapping ends (that would not otherwise bond with each other) ofa cylindrical separator. The polymeric seal would thus bond the two endstogether under a controlled heating condition, and form a seal. Asuitably shaped polymeric layer can also be laminated or coated ontoeither side of a separator to be installed into a button cell, such thatthe polymeric material seals the outer periphery of the separator duringa controlled heating condition.

The use of ultrasonic vibration to fuse the material to itself oranother material has been found effective in producing a good seal in(for example) PVA films.

A third method for forming a seal is to apply hot wax, or epoxy resin,or other glue type sealant to the seams. An important aspect is that thematerials used here (wax or epoxy) be resistant to the highly alkalineenvironment of the battery and maintain their sealing characteristics.

Alternatively, seamless separator tubes using a variety of polymerprocessing methods such as extrusion, injection molding, or blowmoulding/blown films can be employed. Likewise, seamless tubes can beprepared by, e.g., completely coating a seamed material such as afibrous material with a suitable separator forming polymer such asregenerated cellulose such that the seam is not present in theseparator, but rather in the underlying material. It should beappreciated that the separator structures described herein may includeany number of layers of the materials described above to moreeffectively limit the migration of the anode-fouling soluble species.

A still further alternative is to combine heat sealing and polymercross-linking by coating or laminating a cross-linkable polymer withcross-linking agent onto a separator such as cellophane. The separatorcan be placed into position using convention placement methods.Introduction of electrolyte alone or in the anode will cross-link thepolymer to form a sealed separator.

It should be further appreciated that the positive and negative ends ofthe separator should also be desirably sealed in a manner sufficient toeffectively limit the migration of anode-fouling soluble species to theanode. Cylindrical cells typically include an annular grommet disposedproximal the negative cell terminal end that is compressed eitheraxially or radially against the cathode and separator to prevent anodespillover. The negative end of the separator can abut and be sealedagainst the grommet by dispensing a polymer to the periphery of theseparator at the negative end, and sealing the polymer against thegrommet under controlled heating conditions. A chemical bond includingcross-linking may also be used to create a seal. The negative end of theseparator can also be mechanically sealed using a grommet or the likewith an appropriately designed separator lock. Alternatively, a physicalseal can be applied to the upper end of the zinc anode to effectivelylimit the migration of anode-fouling soluble species to the anode. Thenegative end can also be sealed by using a disk shaped cap coated with across-linkable polymer which will seal against the seam andbottom-sealed cylindrical separator tube when the polymer iscross-linked. Alternatively, the top surface and edge of the cathode maybe covered by appropriate cross-linkable polymers or polymer gels toeffectively limit migration of anode-fouling soluble species.Alternatively, the top surface of the anode may be covered byappropriate cross-linkable polymers or polymer gels to effectively limitmigration of anode-fouling soluble species from the cathode.

In a fourth method, a side seal can be fabricated using a mandrel andshoe set-up and ultrasonically fusing the material to form a side (seam)seal. A cut piece of PVA film is wrapped around the mandrel and heldcaptive by the shoe. Sufficient film over-wrap is maintained forprocessing purposes, and a seal overlap of approximately 3 mm istargeted. The mandrel/shoe set-up is placed onto a speed-programmableslide, which is in turn mounted to a spring-loaded plate. The slide andplate are then placed under an ultrasonic welding horn, operatingdesirably between 20 kHz and 40 kHz. The force that the plate exertsbetween the horn and the PVA film on the mandrel (desirably 3-10 lb_(f),alternatively 4-7 lb_(f), or alternatively 5-6 lb_(f)) is adjustable byusing springs with different spring constants. The quality of the weldedseam is dependent upon the speed of the slide, the pressure of the filmagainst the horn, the amplitude of the welder, and the moisturecontent/temperature of the film during the welding process. Moisturecontent at 21 C is desirably 1-25%, alternatively 3-10%, andalternatively still 5-7%. When welding is complete, the final tubeshould be a continuously sealed cylinder substantially devoid ofporosity (in excess of that of the base film material) caused by eitherinsufficient or excessive heating derived from ultrasonic welding (FIG.17). The excess over-lap may be trimmed away from the cylindrical tube.

In order to create a sealed separator tube or bag, at least a portion ofan end of the fully side-sealed cylinder should be sealed. Using animpulse heat-sealing apparatus (Fuji FS-315), at least a portion of anend of the cylinder is sealed in a line substantially perpendicular tothat of the side seal (FIG. 18). The sealed end can then be folded andformed into a cylindrical shape via multiple methods such that theinternal bag volume is maximized and the tube is given the shape of thebottom of the can into which it is subsequently inserted (FIG. 19). Anyother suitable end sealing method including ultrasonics, adhesivesealing or the like may be employed as described so long asanode-fouling soluble species are effectively limited from migrating tothe anode.

The creation of a sealed tube substantially free of leaks is desirableto provide a suitably operable cell. A qualitative test is used todetermine seal quality in the following manner. A hollow tube with anouter diameter (OD) that is undersized from the PVA bag inner diameter(ID) by about 0.005″ is connected to a gas supply (preferably Argon orNitrogen). A PVA bag, which is significantly taller than the heightrequired for the cylindrical cell, is inserted onto the hollow tube sothat the total height of the bag to be installed in the cell is stillbelow the bottom of hollow tube. An elastomeric O-ring is then placedover the PVA bag in such a manner as to seal the bag against the hollowtube. A gas pressure of 2-3 psig is supplied to the tube, and sufficienttime is allowed for the bag to fill with gas and reach an ultimatepressure of 2-3 psig. Once the bag is inflated (without any dimensionaldeformation to the PVA bag) it is inserted into a bath of EtOH (95.2%,Fisher Scientific, located in Pittsburgh, Pa.) and the presence of gasbubbling through the EtOH is indicative of a leak in the sealed bag andwill render the bag unusable.

Finally, diffusion of anode-fouling soluble species may be effectivelylimited when a suitable separator is configured as described herein.Simple experiments can be performed to screen various sample materialsdirectly in button cells or other test vehicles and monitor the opencircuit voltage (OCV) over time. A decay in OCV is an indicator of achange in the surface of one of the electrodes, most likely the resultof migration of an anode-fouling soluble species, since all othercomponents in the cell are known to typically not cause OCV decay. Formore quantitative separator material screening and selection as well asto evaluate improvements and/or modifications made to a particularmaterial, an “out-of-cell” test (such as the Exclusion Test describedherein) in a specially designed fixture is more desirable. The ExclusionTest was performed as follows to determine suitability of separatormaterials or to determine the efficacy of a seal.

A glass tube was provided having a first end (Side A) and a second end(Side B) divided by two L-shaped O-ring seal joints with an o-ring sizeof −112 (Ace Glass, located in Vineland, N.J.). The separator or sealedseam of the separator sample was placed in the center of the tube,between the O-ring seal joints. Side A of the glass tube was filled with10 mL of 34 wt. % KOH containing a mixture of 0.25 g CuO and 0.25 g ofCuS. This ensured that there was a constant supply of soluble copper andsulfur species in the bulk solution substantially close to theequilibrium concentration under those conditions for the duration of theexperiment. Side B was filled with 10 mL of 34 wt. % of KOHsubstantially free of CuO, CuS, or a mixture of CuO and CuS. The use ofCuO and CuS particles was selected over the use of a known concentrationof the soluble copper and sulfur species in side A because it also moreclosely mimics the conditions prevailing in a battery containing thesolid cathode materials in electrolyte. For silver exclusionexperiments, 0.25 g of AgO was utilized in Side A. The differencebetween the concentrations of the species on side A vs. side B providedan Exclusion Value, which is a measure of the ability of the separatorto effectively limit migration of anode-fouling soluble species throughthe separator. When starting with un-dissolved materials like CuO or CuSpowders placed in KOH in side A of the glass tube, the experiment willalso indicate the solubility of the soluble species from the undissolvedmaterials. A high concentration of KOH (e.g. 34 wt. % ) is desirable, toensure rapid and significant solubility of the anode-fouling solublespecies. The above-described experiment was performed at 60° C. for 5days.

A. Button Cell Tests:

A 357 size button cell is provided including the separator to be tested.The cathode includes 92% active material, 5% graphite, 2.5% electrolyte,and 0.5% polyethylene binder. The anode includes 68% sieved zinc with31.25% 34-2 electrolyte and 0.75% of a combination of gelling agents andcorrosion inhibitors. The cell was stored in an oven at a temperature of60 C. Cell open circuit voltage (OCV), impedance, and cell expansion wasmonitored. Cell impedance was measured using a frequency responseanalyzer (e.g. Model 12 from Schlumberger Inc.). Reduction in OCVimplies the potential of one or both electrodes is deteriorating fromits thermodynamic value, and indicates that anode-fouling solublespecies are migrating through the separator. Increase in cell impedanceimplies increase in the resistance between the two electrodes, which mayalso be caused by blocking of the separator or passivation of the Zincanode surface by the diffusing or migrating anode-fouling species. Cellexpansion is a sign of internal pressure build-up from gas generation,which is also an expected result if copper ions migrate through theseparator and come in contact with the zinc anode. Expansion can bemeasured by monitoring the external height increase over time, of theassembled cell. Hence monitoring these characteristics is veryinstructional in understanding and valuating the efficacy of aparticular separator material or its seal quality, or to screen severalcandidate materials or combinations.

B. Exclusion Test:

A more quantitative method involves a direct measure of theconcentration of the anode-fouling species on either side of theseparator in question. The set up is stored at 60° C. in an oven for 5days with the top of the glass tube sealed to limit electrolyteevaporation. The electrolyte on both sides is then analyzed for thespecific ion concentrations as described herein.

When specific ion concentration on side B is less than the concentrationon side A, the separator or seal is deemed effective in limiting themigration of anode-fouling soluble species. The results in Table 4indicates the results of the exclusion test, as described in more detailherein.

Soluble Cu species were analyzed in KOH using standard inductivelycoupled plasma (ICP) analytical techniques utilizing a Thermo IrisIntrepid II (radial unit) supplied by Thermo Electron Corporation(Waltham, Mass.). Typically, samples were prepared using 1 g ofelectrolyte sample diluted to 50 ml with 10% nitric acid solution priorto analysis. Calibration curves consisted of three solutions: blank, 0.5ppm, and 1 ppm where all solutions were 10% nitric acid. Copper iscalibrated using a 1000 ppm Spex standard. Measurements for copper weremade using the average of four wavelengths (223.0, 224.7, 324.7, 327.3).A Scandium internal standard was used in each sample and standard (20ppm) measured.

Soluble sulfur species were analyzed in KOH using standard inductivelycoupled plasma (ICP) analytical techniques utilizing a Thermo IrisIntrepid II (radial unit) supplied by Thermo Electron Corporation(Waltham, Mass.). Typically, samples were prepared using 1 g ofelectrolyte sample diluted to 50 ml with 10% nitric acid solution.Normally an additional 5:50 or 10:50 dilution was made, which wasmeasured by volume to provide suitable results in this technique.Calibration curves consisted of three solutions: blank, 0.5 ppm, and 1ppm where all solutions were 10% nitric acid. Sulfur was calibratedusing standards prepared from Spex SO₄ (K₂SO₄ starting source) standard.Measurements for sulfur were made using the average of two wavelengths(180.7, 182.0). A Scandium internal standard was used in each sample andstandard (20 ppm) measured.

It is also noted that plasticizers or processing aids used inmanufacture of films such as polyvinyl alcohol can adversely affect theability of the film to effectively limit the migration of anode-foulingsoluble species when used as a separator in a cell, and, as such, filmsprepared with substantial quantities of one or more plasticizers aredisfavored. It is desirable that a film separator for use in accordancewith the invention contain less than about 15% plasticizers by weight,alternatively, contain less than about 10% or less than about 5%plasticizers by weight. Particularly suitable film separators containabout 3% plasticizers by weight or less.

One possible separator is non cold-water soluble, non-crosslinkedpolyvinyl alcohol film separator comprising less than about 3%plasticizers by weight. Two such suitable polyvinyl alcohol films areM-1000 and M-2000 (Monosol).

Although a separator of the invention can be provided as described, theseparator can optionally be coupled with (e.g., laminated or tacked to)a conventional non-woven fabric layer in an otherwise conventionalmanner.

The following Examples describe various embodiments of the presentinvention. Other embodiments within the scope of the appended claimswill be apparent to a skilled artisan considering the specification orpractice of the invention as described herein. It is intended that thespecification, together with the Examples, be considered exemplary only,with the scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by theclaims, which follow the Examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1

This is an example that illustrates the efficacy of various separators'ability to effectively limit the migration of anode-fouling solublespecies. The OCV was compared for a plurality of 357 cells made withvarious separators both initially and after 1 day room temperature ofstorage. The cathode was CuO (commercially available from Aldrich), andthe cell anode was a conventional alkaline Zn gel anode havingconventional zinc and electrolyte concentrations.

In most cases, two layers of separator were used in the cell, one facingthe cathode (“cathode side separator”), the other facing the anode(“anode side separator”). The OCV data presented below in Table 3includes the average of two cells of the given cell type. It should beappreciated that a decrease in OCV indicates increased migration ofanode-fouling soluble copper species into the anode. TABLE 3 CathodeSide Separator Anode Side OCV, V OCV, V Category Type Separator(initial) (after 1 day) Cellophane 350P00 FS2213 1.115 1.098 SC-216F3T23 1.116 1.095 SC-216 SC-216 1.299 1.163 SC216 None 1.115 1.101SF-586 F3T23 1.107 1.018 SF-586 None 1.250 1.169 FAS A F3T23 1.118 1.096Micro-porous B F3T23 1.116 1.108 membranes C F3T23 1.116 1.107 D F3T231.130 1.091 E None 1.268 1.138 Micro-porous F F3T23 1.088 0.554membranes G F3T23 1.095 0.736 Celgard F3T23 1.118 0.856 3407Note:350P00: commercially available from UCB Film Inc. UK.SC-216 and SF-586: commercially available from Viskase Corporation, ILFAS micro-porous membrane samples provided by Advanced Membrane System,MA.Sample F is provided by W. L. Gore.& Associates, INC., MD.Sample G is provided by Aporous, MACelgard 3407: commercially available from Hoechst Celanese Corporation,NC.FS2213: commercially available from Freudenberg, GermanyF3T23: commercially available from Kuraray Co. LTD., Osaka, Japan

As shown in Table 3, based on the deterioration in OCV, it is seen thatthe cellophane and the TiO₂ filled HMWPE (high molecular weightpolyethylene) membranes outperform the microporous-type membranes (e.g.Celgard 3407 PE, B10ab Nylon and Excellerator Alkaline PTFE, etc),indicating that they are more effective in limiting migration ofanode-fouling copper species.

Example 2

This is an example that illustrates the ability of various separators toeffectively limit the migration of anode-fouling species. As explainedelsewhere, Side A of the glass tube fixture was filled with 34% KOHhaving a known concentration of copper ions and electrolyte free ofcopper ions was added to compartment B. The concentration of complexcopper ions on side B was measured after 1 week at room temperature.

Referring now to Table 4, the Exclusion Test was performed on variousseparators to determine the Exclusion Value of soluble copper, silver,and sulfur species after storage at a temperature of 60 C. Side A of theglass fixture was filled with 34% KOH solution with 0.25 g of CuO(copper oxide) and 0.25 g of CuS powder which produce the soluble copperand sulfur species concentrations shown in columns 2 and 4. For silverexclusion determination, 0.25 g of AgO was used in side A of the AgO wasused in side A of the fixture to produce silver concentrations shown incolumn 6. The summary results are displayed below in Table 4. TABLE 4Exclusion Test results for soluble copper, silver, and sulfur speciesafter 54 days at 60° C. Separator Film Side A Side B (1-ply CopperCopper Side A Side B Side A Side B Exclusion Exclusion Exclusion unlession ion Sulfur Sulfur Silver Silver Value of Value of Value of noted)(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Cu (%) S (%) Ag (%) SC-216 166 47358 192 31 <1 72 46 >97 (Viskase) SC-216, 129 22 410 100 — — 83 76 —2-ply (Viskase) SF-586 157 58 — — — — 63.0 — — 1-ply Hybrid 123 86 277174 — — 30 37 — #33 Hybrid 115 34 313 156 — — 70 50 — #33/SC216/ Hyb #33In-house 115 22 362  38 — — 81 90 — PVA (film #3)* Monosol 136 69 321162 — — 49 50 — PVA M1030 Monosol 133 18 377  83 32 <1 87 78 >97 PVAM1000 Monosol 136 23 348  61 33 <1 83 83 >97 PVA M2000Conditions: 10 mL 34% KOH each side of film, Copper from 0.25 g CuO,Sulfur from 0.25 g CuS, Silver from 0.25 g AgO, 5 days at 60° C. storage*PVA film cast from 10.6% PVA solution (Celvol 350)

The results of Table 4 above illustrate that multiple layers of aseparator are more effective than a single layer of the same separatormaterial in limiting the migration of soluble copper and sulfur speciesat 60 C. The results also indicate suitability of PVA films in excludingsoluble copper, silver, and sulfur species.

Example 3

This is an example that illustrates the utility of effectively limitingthe migration of anode-fouling soluble species in stored 357 size buttoncells. Referring now to FIG. 20, four cells having CuO cathodes werestored for five days at room temperature, followed by 60 degrees C.until the cells failed (as determined by OCV, impedance and expansion asdiscussed previously). The OCV was continuously measured for each cellfrom the first day of storage. FIG. 20 shows that cellophane separatorsare better than FAS 350Z separator for cells containing CuO cathodes.Also, thicker cellophane separators (SF-586, 3 mil thick) outperform thethinner separator (350P00, and SC216 both are 1 mil thick) confirmingresults from the Exclusion Test experiments.

Example 4

This is an example that illustrates the utility of a cell made frommaterials of the herein described invention. Referring now to FIG. 21,two pairs of cells were provided. Each pair of cells included 1) onecell whose separator contained a layer Viskase Cellophane (SC-216) incombination with a layer of a hybrid separator comprising cross-linkedPVA on a F3T23 nonwoven fabric; and 2) a second cell whose separatorcomprised two layers of Viskase Cellophane. The first pair of cells(cells 541 and 543) were discharged at 5 mA immediately after cellfabrication. The second pair of cells (cells 540 and 542) weredischarged at 5 mA after 17 hours.

FIG. 21 shows that the cell built with 2 layers of Viskase Cellophaneseparator (SC-216) discharges to full capacity if it is dischargedimmediately, but has a very short capacity if it is discharged after 17hrs rest. The cell built with 1 layer of Viskase cellophane separatorand 1 layer of hybrid (cross linked PVA coating on F3T23) separatordischarged to full capacity even after 17 hr rest. One skilled in theart will readily appreciate that although a separator material maydemonstrate an adequate Exclusion Value, the seal in a battery such as abutton cell may affect its ability to effectively limit the migration ofanode-fouling soluble species.

Example 4 thus shows that a combination of cellophane and hybridseparator is more effective in limiting the migration of soluble copperand sulfur species than 2 layers of SC 216 cellophane.

It should be appreciated that the hybrid separator layer used above wasfabricated by cross-linking a 2% PVA in water solution with a 5% sodiumborate solution on the surface of a F3T23 non-woven separator. The PVAloading in the hybrid separator was approximately 10 g/m², and it had anair permeability in the dry state of 1800 Gurley seconds. The hybridlayer was placed on the anode gel side of the separator structure. Theair permeability was determined using a Gurley Precision InstrumentTester described above.

Example 5

This is an example that illustrates the utility of a cell made usingseparators and cathode materials of various aspects of the presentinvention. Referring now to FIG. 22, a pair of electrochemical cells wasprovided having a cathode that included CuO and CuS. The cells weredischarged after 17 hours of rest. The first cell had a separatorcomprising a layer of Viskase Cellophane disposed between two layers ofhybrid separator. The hybrid layers therefore faced outwardly, that istowards the anode, and towards the cathode. FIG. 22 shows, similar toFIG. 21, that for mixtures of CuO and CuS, a combination of cellophaneseparator and hybrid separator (cross linked PVA coating on F3T23) ismore effective than 2 layers of cellophane alone.

Example 6

This is an example that illustrates the utility of a cell made torepresent an aspect of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 23, apair of cells was discharged at 5 mA after 5 days. Each cell contained acathode comprising CuO and CuS with 2 layers of hybrid separator (crosslinked PVA coated on F3T23). One of the cells contained PVA binder inthe cathode, while the other cell did not. FIG. 23 shows that with acathode comprising a CuO/CuS mixture, 2 layers of hybrid separator areeffective in limiting migration of anode-fouling soluble copper andsulfur species even after 5 days, thereby allowing the cell to dischargeto full capacity. Furthermore, adding 0.2 wt % PVA to the cathode isshown to extend cell discharge capacity by enabling better utilizationof the cathode capacity.

Example 7

This is an example that illustrates the utility of the separator andcathode materials described herein. Referring now to FIG. 24, a pair ofsize 357 button cells were provided. The cathodes were made with a1-to-1 molar ratio of CuO and CuS mixture. The first cell had aseparator comprising a pair of hybrid layers (cross linked PVA coatedonto F3T23). The other cell had one layer of EVA emulsion coated ontoF3R23 (commercially available from Kuraray). The first cell wasdischarged at 5 mA after 5 days. The second cell was discharged at 5 mAafter 4 days. FIG. 24 shows that the cross-linked PVA coated onto F3T23outperformed the EVA-coated F3R23, even after an additional day beforetesting. It also shows that the EVA-coated F3R23 separator does not showthe performance deficiency previously noted with 2 layers of SC 216cellophane (Example 6)

Example 8

This is an example that illustrates the effectiveness of limiting themigration of anode-fouling species in a cell made according to variousaspects of the present invention. Referring now to FIG. 25, a pair ofcells was provided, each having a cathode containing a 1 -to-1 molarmixture of CuO and CuS. The first cell had one layer of hybrid separatorimpregnated with Laponite. The second cell had a layer of Viskasecellophane sandwiched between two layers of hybrid (cross-linked PVAcoated onto F3T23). The first cell was discharged at 5 mA after fourdays. The second cell was discharged at 5 mA after one day. FIG. 25shows that both separators were effective in limiting the migration ofsoluble sulfur and copper species into the anode.

Example 9

This example illustrates the effect of using an additive such as ZnO inthe cathode to reduce the ability of the copper and sulfur species tofoul the anode. Two 357 size button cells were constructed in a similarmanner with the exception that the cathode of one button cell contained2% ZnO blended with the cathode. The cathode mix was produced from a1:1M ratio of jet-milled CuO and as received CuS dry blended with KS4graphite and ZnO additive such that the cathode composition was 95%actives, 3% graphite and 2% ZnO. The cathode composition for the cellwithout the ZnO additive was 95% actives and 5% KS4 graphite. The anodeconsisted of a 68% sieved BIP anode and the separator was a single plyof M 2000 PVA film. Both cells were discharged after a 7 day period ofambient storage. Both cells were exposed to an intermittent test regimeinvolving a 12.5 mA current for 1 hour followed by open circuit rest,repeated 4 times per day. The results, shown in the Table 5 belowdemonstrate that the cell with 2% ZnO delivered 240 mA/g dischargecapacity as compared to only 100 mAh/gm for the control cell with noZnO. The results demonstrate the beneficial aspects of added ZnO onbattery shelf life. TABLE 5 Cell Discharge Capacity to Cathode 0.7 V,mAh/g 95% 1:1 M CuO/CuS + 5% KS4 100 95% 1:1 M CuO/CuS, 3% KS4, 240  2%ZnO

Example 10

Referring to FIG. 26, this example illustrates the method used toidentify the relative amounts of free and bound water in a separatorsample. Samples of separator material having a diameter of 0.11″ wereprepared and preconditioned in dry atmospheric conditions (<1% relativehumidity) for 24 hours. The samples were then soaked in deionized waterfor one hour, removed under an atmosphere of <1% relative humidity, andblotted with a Kimwipe. Also in an atmosphere of <1% relative humidity asample pan was tared and the prepared sample was then inserted into thesample pan. The prepared sample was then weighed and the weightrecorded. The sample lid was then crimped onto the pan. The samplecontainer was immediately immersed in liquid nitrogen to freeze anywater present in the sample. A differential scanning calorimeter(available from TA Instruments of New Castle, Del., Model Q100) was usedto evaluate the sample. The system was programmed to ramp at 2° C. perminute and scan the temperature range from −80° C. to 50° C. The amountof bound water was determined by evaluating the heat flow curvesgenerated and by determining the proportion of the curve that lies below−1° C. and the portion that lies above −1° C. When the melting curve fora material indicated a greater than 50% of the energy (J/g) of meltingto be below −1° C. then the material was determined to have more boundwater than free water within the separator. Having more bound water thanfree water is an indication that a material is suitable to provide theattributes required for a separator to effectively limiting themigration of anode-fouling soluble species.

Example 11

This is an example that illustrates the method used to identify therelative melting points of PVA separator samples. Samples of separatormaterial having a diameter of 0.11″ were prepared and preconditioned in50% relative humidity atmospheric conditions for 24 hours. Also in anatmosphere of 50% relative humidity a sample pan was tared and theprepared sample was then inserted into the sample pan. The preparedsample was then weighed and the weight recorded. The sample lid was thencrimped onto the pan. The sample container was inserted into adifferential scanning calorimeter (available from TA Instruments of NewCastle, Del., Model Q100) which was used to evaluate the sample. Thesystem was programmed to ramp at 5° C. per minute and to scan thetemperature range from 30° C. to 300° C. The melting point of thematerial was determined by the first significant peak in the heat flowcurve (W/g) as will be understood by one skilled in the art (See FIG.27). When the melting curve for a material indicated a melting pointgreater than 215° C. the PVA material was determined to be a suitablematerial for use in effectively limiting the migration of anode-foulingspecies as described herein.

Example 12

This is an example that illustrates the method used to identify therelative pH value of the electrolyte retained in a separator. Samples ofseparator materials were preconditioned in dry atmospheric conditions(<1% RH) for a minimum of 24 hours. Samples were weighed to the nearest0.0001 g. Monosol M2000, M1000, and M1030 PVA film were soaked in 10 mlof 34-0 KOH for 24 hours at 23° C. After soaking, the films were dippedin methanol to remove surface KOH and water and rinsed with methylenechloride to remove residual solvent. The samples with absorbed KOH werethen allowed to evaporate the residual methylene chloride by standing at23° C. for 5 minutes and the weights were recorded to 0.0001 g. The filmwas then digested in 25 mL of deionized water at 70° C. until dissolved.The pH was recorded along with the temperature of the solution duringmeasurement. The pH at 23° C. of retained electrolyte within each filmwas calculated using solution pH and temperature data using standardchemical calculation methods. Control samples were run using duplicatesof the materials being tested but exposing them to only pH 7 de-ionizedwater solution. Variation from pH 7 was compensated (added orsubtracted) from the corresponding sample to yield the normalized pH ofthe electrolyte retained within the sample separator. Table 6 shows thatin separators that demonstrate adequate Exclusion Values, the pH valuesof the retained electrolyte in these separators are lower than the pHvalues in the bulk electrolyte. TABLE 6 pH Value pH Value of Differencevs. Bulk Separator Retained Electrolyte Electrolyte M1000 13.7 1.8 M200013.7 1.8Standard 34-0 bulk electrolyte had a pH value of 15.5

In view of the above, it will be seen that the several advantages of theinvention are achieved and other advantageous results attained. Asvarious changes could be made in the above processes and compositeswithout departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended thatall matter contained in the above description and shown in theaccompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in alimiting sense.

1. An electrochemical cell comprising: an anode; a cathode containing anoxide of copper, the oxide of copper having a surface area greater than0.5 m²/g; and a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. 2.The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the oxide ofcopper is included in particle form.
 3. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 1, wherein the anode includes zinc having a particlesize distribution within a window of 200 microns.
 4. The electrochemicalcell as recited in claim 3, wherein the particle size distribution issubstantially between 100 and 250 microns.
 5. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 4, wherein the particle size distribution issubstantially centered around 100 microns.
 6. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 3, wherein the particle size distribution issubstantially centered around 175 microns.
 7. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 3, wherein the particle size distribution issubstantially centered around 250 microns.
 8. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 3, wherein the particle size distribution issubstantially centered around 300 microns.
 9. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 1, wherein the cathode further comprises a metaloxide additive.
 10. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 9,wherein the additive further comprises an electrode material, theelectrode material providing a higher operating voltage vs. zinc in aninitial portion of discharge compared to the oxide of copper.
 11. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 10, wherein the additive isselected from the group consisting of EMD, CMD, NiO, NiOOH, Cu(OH)₂,Cobalt Oxide, PbO₂, AgO, Ag₂O, Cu₂Mn₂O₄, and Cu₂Ag₂O₄, Cu₂Ag₂O₃, CuAgS,and CuAg₃S.
 12. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 1, whereinthe cathode further comprises a copper based mixed oxide materialidentified generally by M_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z), wherein: M is a solubleelement capable of producing mixed oxide compounds or complexes; 1≦x≦5;1≦y≦5; and 1≦z≦20.
 13. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 12,wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Mn, Ni, Co, Fe, Sn,V, Mo, Pb, and Ag.
 14. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 12,wherein the copper based mixed oxide material is further identified byAM_(x)Cu_(y)O_(z), wherein A is a metal.
 15. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 1, wherein the cathode further comprises an additivethat, when used alone, has a lower discharge voltage than the oxide,wherein the combined oxide and additive produce a higher dischargevoltage than either the oxide or the additive alone.
 16. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 15, wherein the additive isselected from the group consisting of elemental sulfur, selenium,tellurium, and compounds thereof.
 17. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 16, wherein the additive comprises a sulfide of copper.18. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 17, wherein theadditive comprises CuS.
 19. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim18, wherein the cathode further comprises a molar ratio of CuO/CuSsubstantially between 0.5:1 and 1.5:1.
 20. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 19, wherein the molar ratio is substantially 1:1. 21.The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the oxide has asurface area within the range defined by a lower limit of 0.5 m²/g andan upper limit of 100 m²/g.
 22. The electrochemical cell as recited inclaim 1, wherein the oxide has a surface area within the range definedby a lower limit of 5 m²/g and an upper limit of 30 m²/g.
 23. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 21, wherein the surface area issubstantially 60 m²/g.
 24. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim21, wherein the oxide has a particle size within the range defined by alower limit of 0.1 micron and an upper limit of 150 microns.
 25. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 24, wherein the range isfurther defined by a lower limit of 1 micron.
 26. The electrochemicalcell as recited in claim 24, wherein the range is further defined by anupper limit of 50 microns.
 27. An electrochemical cell comprising: ananode; a cathode containing an oxide of copper, the oxide having asurface area >0.5 m²/g and an additive to the oxide that has a lowerdischarge voltage than the oxide, wherein the combined oxide andadditive produce a higher discharge voltage than either the oxide or theadditive alone; and a separator disposed between the anode and cathode.28. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 27, wherein the oxidecomprises copper oxide.
 29. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim28, wherein the additive comprises a sulfide of copper.
 30. Theelectrochemical as recited in claim 29, wherein the sulfide comprisesCuS.
 31. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 30, wherein thecathode further comprises a molar ratio of CuO/CuS substantially between0.5:1 and 1.5:1.
 32. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 31,wherein the cathode further comprises a molar ratio of CuO/CuSsubstantially between 0.8:1 and 1.2:1.
 33. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 31, wherein the molar ratio is substantially 1:1. 34.The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 27, wherein the separator(i) comprises a polymer and (ii) is configured to effectively limit themigration of anode-fouling soluble species from the cathode to theanode.
 35. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 27, wherein theseparator further comprises a polymer film having opposing sides, thepolymer film having the ability to effectively limit the migration ofsoluble copper species and soluble sulfur species from one side of thepolymer film to the other side of the polymer film.
 36. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 27, wherein the separator (i)further comprises a polyvinyl alcohol film and (ii) is configured toeffectively limit anode-fouling soluble species from migrating to theanode.
 37. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 36, whereinsubstantially all fluid communication between the anode and the cathodeis through the separator, and wherein the separator effectively limitsthe migration of soluble copper species and soluble sulfur speciesthrough the separator from the cathode to the anode.
 38. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 27, further comprising analkaline aqueous bulk electrolyte in fluid communication with the anodeand the cathode, substantially all of the fluid communication beingthrough the separator, the separator being adapted to effectively limitmigration of at least one anode-fouling soluble species through theseparator from the cathode to the anode.
 39. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 27, wherein the additive is selected from the groupconsisting of elemental sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and compoundsthereof.
 40. An electrochemical cell comprising: an anode; a cathodecontaining an oxide of copper and an additive to the oxide, the additivehaving a surface area within the range defined by a lower limit of 0.5m²/g and an upper limit of 100 m²/g, wherein the additive has a lowerdischarge voltage than the oxide, wherein the combined oxide andadditive have a higher discharge voltage than either the oxide or theadditive alone; and a separator disposed between the anode and cathode.41. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 40, wherein theadditive comprises a sulfide of copper.
 42. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 41, wherein the additive comprises CuS.
 43. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 42, wherein the cathode furthercomprises a molar ratio of CuO/CuS substantially between 0.5:1 and1.5:1.
 44. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 43, wherein thecathode further comprises a molar ratio of CuO/CuS substantially between0.8:1 and 1.2:1.
 45. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 44,wherein the molar ratio is substantially 1:1.
 46. The electrochemicalcell as recited in claim 40, wherein the separator (i) comprises apolymer and (ii) is configured to effectively limit the migration ofanode-fouling soluble species from the cathode to the anode.
 47. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 40, wherein the separatorfurther comprises a polymer film having opposing sides, the polymer filmhaving the ability to effectively limit the migration of soluble copperspecies, soluble silver species, and soluble sulfur species from oneside of the polymer film to the other side of the polymer film.
 48. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 40, wherein the separator (i)further comprises a polyvinyl alcohol film and (ii) is configured toeffectively limit soluble copper species, soluble silver species, andsoluble sulfur species from migrating to the anode.
 49. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 40, wherein substantially allfluid communication between the anode and the cathode is through theseparator, the separator being adapted to effectively limit themigration of at least one anode-fouling soluble species through theseparator from the cathode to the anode.
 50. The electrochemical cell asrecited in claim 40, wherein the separator further comprises a polymerfilm having opposing sides, the polymer film having the ability toeffectively limit the migration of soluble copper species, solublesilver species, and soluble sulfur species from one side of the polymerfilm to the other side of the polymer film.
 51. An electrochemical cellcomprising: an anode; a cathode including a component that generates ananode-fouling sulfur species; a separator disposed between the anode andthe cathode; an electrolyte; and an additive that interacts with atleast a portion of the sulfur species to reduce anode-fouling by thespecies.
 52. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 5 1, whereinthe interaction reduces the solubility of the sulfur species.
 53. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 52, wherein the sulfur specieshas a reduced ability to migrate to the anode when combined with theadditive.
 54. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 51, whereinthe additive binds to the sulfur species to reduce migration to theanode.
 55. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 54, wherein thebound product is larger in size than the anode-fouling soluble species.56. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 51, wherein theinteraction between the additive at least a portion of the sulfurspecies is a reaction that produces a reaction product.
 57. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 56, wherein the reactionproduct has a solubility product of less than 2×10⁻²⁵.
 58. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 57, wherein the solubilityproduct of the reaction product is about 2×10⁻²⁵.
 59. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 5 1, wherein the additivereduces migration of the sulfur species through the separator.
 60. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 51, wherein the additive mixeswith the sulfur species to form a sulfide.
 61. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 60, wherein the sulfide is larger than theanode-fouling sulfur species.
 62. The electrochemical cell as recited inclaim 5 1, wherein the sulfur species is selected from the groupconsisting of a sulfide, sulfate, sulfite, and thiosulfate.
 63. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 51, wherein the additive isselected from the group consisting of bismuth oxide, bismuth hydroxide,and zinc oxide.
 64. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 51,further comprising an alkaline aqueous bulk electrolyte having a pHvalue, wherein the separator includes a polymeric material and analkaline aqueous electrolyte being retained in the separator, theretained electrolyte having a pH value lower than that of the bulkelectrolyte.
 65. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 51,wherein the separator (i) comprises a polymer and (ii) is configured toeffectively limit the migration of anode-fouling species from thecathode to the anode.
 66. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim51, wherein the separator further comprises a polymer film havingopposing sides, the polymer film having the ability to effectively limitthe migration of soluble copper species and soluble sulfur species fromone side of the polymer film to the other side of the polymer film. 67.The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 51, wherein the separator(i) further comprises a polyvinyl alcohol film and (ii) is configured toeffectively limit soluble copper species and soluble sulfur species frommigrating to the anode.
 68. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim51, wherein substantially all fluid communication between the anode andthe cathode is through the separator, the separator being adapted toeffectively limit the migration of at least one anode-fouling solublespecies through the separator from the cathode to the anode.
 69. Anelectrochemical cell comprising: an anode; a cathode containing an oxideof copper and an additive to the oxide, the cathode having a densitybetween about 3.5 g/cc and 4.5 g/cc; and a separator disposed betweenthe anode and the cathode.
 70. The electrochemical cell as recited inclaim 69, wherein the oxide comprises CuO.
 71. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 70, wherein the additive comprises sulfide ofcopper.
 72. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 71, wherein thesulfide of copper comprises CuS.
 73. An electrochemical cell comprising:an anode; a cathode containing an oxide of copper; a separator disposedbetween the anode and the cathode; and an electrolyte facilitating ionictransport through the separator between the cathode and anode, whereinthe cell achieves an anode capacity/cell volume ratio>0.5 Ah/cc.
 74. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 73, wherein the anodecapacity/cell volume ratio is between 0.55 and 0.9 Ah/cc.
 75. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 73, wherein the anodecapacity/cell volume ratio is between 0.55 and 0.7 Ah/cc.
 76. Anelectrochemical cell comprising: an anode including a quantity ofmercury below 0.025%; a cathode containing an oxide of copper; and aseparator disposed between the anode and the cathode.
 77. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 76, wherein the oxide comprisesCuO.
 78. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 76, wherein thequantity of mercury is substantially zero.
 79. The electrochemical cellas recited in claim 76, wherein the cathode further comprises anadditive having a voltage greater than that of CuO.
 80. Theelectrochemical cell as recited in claim 76, wherein the cathode furthercomprises an additive that, when used alone, has a lower dischargevoltage than the oxide, wherein the combined oxide and additive producea higher discharge voltage than either the oxide or the additive alone.81. The electrochemical cell as recited in claim 80, wherein theadditive is selected from the group consisting of elemental sulfur,selenium, tellurium, and compounds thereof.
 82. A method for selecting acombination of at least two materials to be included into a cathode ofan electrochemical cell, the method comprising: (A) identifying acathode active material and an additive each having a respective opencircuit voltage; (B) determining an open circuit voltage for acombination of the cathode active material and the additive; and (C)selecting the combination when the open circuit voltage of thecombination is greater than the open circuit voltage of the cathodeactive material or the additive alone.
 83. The method as recited inclaim 82, wherein the cathode active material comprises an oxide ofcopper and the additive comprises a sulfide of copper.
 84. The method asrecited in claim 83, wherein the oxide of copper comprises CuO and thesulfide of copper comprises CuS.
 85. A method for selecting acombination of at least two materials to be included in a cathode of anelectrochemical cell, the method comprising: (A) identifying a cathodeactive material and an additive, each having a respective Gibbs' FreeEnergy of reduction reaction; (B) determining the change in Gibbs' FreeEnergy for the reduction reaction of a combination of the cathode activematerial and the additive; and (C) selecting the combination when thechange in Gibbs' Free Energy of the reduction reaction of thecombination is greater than the Gibbs' Free Energy change for thereduction reaction of the cathode active material or the additive alone.86. The method as recited in claim 85, wherein the active cathodematerial comprises an oxide of copper and the additive comprises asulfide of copper.
 87. The method as recited in claim 86, wherein theoxide of copper comprises CuO and the sulfide of copper comprises CuS.88. The method as recited in claim 85, wherein step (A) furthercomprises identifying copper oxide and copper sulfide.
 89. The method asrecited in claim 85, wherein the combination comprises CuO/CuS.